THE  ELEMENTS  OF 

*rhi:toric 


composition 

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RHETORIC   AND    COMPOSITION 


THE 

ELEMENTS  OF    RHETORIC 

AND   COMPOSITION 


BY 


ASHLEY  H.  THORNDIKE,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


NEW    YORK 

THE   CENTURY   CO. 

1910 


Copyright,  1905,  by 
The  Century  Co. 

toUCATlOH  LISBi 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  PRESS 

ROBERT  DRUMMOND   AND  COMPANV 

BROOKLYN,   N.    Y. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  intended  to  be  a  hand-book  for  the  stu- 
dent. It  aims  to  provide  information,  directions,  il- 
lustrations, and  exercises  sufficient  to  guide  him  in  the 
practical  work  of  writing  themes.  Consequently  it  is 
addressed  to  the  student  and  not  to  the  teacher.  Sug- 
gestions and  information  desirable  for  the  teacher, 
which  have  been  excluded  from  this  book,  have  been 
placed  in  a  "  Manual  for  Teachers,"  designed  to  ac- 
company it. 

The  question  of  the  order  in  which  the  different 
parts  of  rhetoric  are  to  be  studied  must  be  considered 
by  every  teacher  with  respect  to  the  needs  of  his 
pupils.  The  present  arrangement  will,  it  is  believed, 
prove  its  adaptability  to  the  needs  of  the  great  ma- 
jority of  classes ;  but  the  chapters  of  the  book  are  dis- 
tinct by  themselves,  each  devoted  to  a  separate  topic, 
so  that  changes  in  their  order  may  be  readily  made  to 
suit  special  conditions. 

A  course  in  composition  to  be  worth  much  must 
call  for  regular  practice  in  writing  by  the  student, 
and  writing  under  the  guidance  and  personal  criticism 
of  a  competent  teacher.  This  book  is  for  use  in  such 
a  course  of  theme- writing.     The  text  of  the  following 


lVi5'7705e 


VI 


Preface 


chapters  is  intended  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
teacher  by  presenting  the  essential  of  rhetorical  theory, 
examples  of  good  prose,  and  practical  directions  for 
the  student. 

The  exercises  accompanying  the  text  are  in  two 
groups,  headed  I  and  II.  Those  under  II  are  based 
on  the  succeeding  instead  of  on  the  preceding  chapter. 
They  are  inductive  in  character,  calling  upon  the  stu- 
dent to  observe,  investigate,  and  think  on  questions 
arising  in  the  course  of  his  practice.  Similarly  the  ex- 
ercises on  correct  usage  precede  instead  of  follow  the 
lists  of  improprieties  and  solecisms.  Rhetoric  is  an 
art,  and  cannot  be  taught  solely  by  the  inductive 
method;  but  anything  that  will  awaken  the  student's 
interest  in  what  is  coming,  that  will  keep  him  ahead 
of  the  text,  must  surely  approve  itself  to  teachers. 

The  exercises  under  I  provide  themes,  drill  on  the 
text,  criticism  of  themes  by  the  class,  and  study  and 
analysis  of  selections  from  the  best  prose  writers. 
The  exercises  are  numerous  and  vary  in  difficulty  as 
well  as  in  purpose.  It  is  hardly  expected  that  any 
one  class  will  perform  them  all;  it  will  doubtless  often 
be  wise  to  omit  many  and  center  attention  on  a  few. 
It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  exercises  are  of  a  char- 
acter to  suggest  to  the  teacher  many  additions  and 
variations. 

What  merit  the  book  possesses  is  in  a  large  degree 
the  result  of  the  work  of  those  men  who  during  the 
past  twenty  years  have  through  their  text-books  im- 
proved so  greatly  the  teaching  of  rhetoric.     The  indebt- 


Preface  vii 

edness  to  the  books  of  Professors  Scott  and  Denney, 
Pearson,  Genung,  Hill,  Clark,  and  Wendell  will  be 
obvious  to  all.  The  indebtedness,  too,  extends  to 
nearly  all  the  text-books  of  rhetoric  in  use  to-day. 
This  book  has  been  composed,  not  with  the  aim  of 
offering  anything  untried  or  revolutionary,  but  in  an 
effort  to  combine  in  a  brief  and  practical  manual  some 
of  the  excellences  of  preceding  books  in  the  light  of 
the  author's  own  experience  as  a  student  and  a  teacher. 


Contents 

PART  I 

PRELIMINARIES 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  The  Art  of  Rhetoric 3 

II  Rules  and  Principles 15 

III  What  to  Write  About 22 

IV  Subject  and  Title 31 

PARAGRAPHS 

V    The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit 36 

VI    The  Development  of  the  Paragraph      .  52 
VII     Themes  of  Two  Paragraphs — Exposition 

and  Argument 69 

VIII    Themes   of   Two    Paragraphs — Descrip- 
tion AND  Narrative     ......  84 

LONGER  THEMES 

IX    The  Plan 105 

X    The  Beginning  and  the  End  ....  118 
XI    The  Development  of  the  Theme      .     .  128 
XII     The  Division  of  the  Theme  into  Para- 
graphs        141 

XIII    Summary  of  Part  I 157 

ix 


X  Contents 


PART  II 
SENTENCES 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV    Different  Forms  of  Sentences  .     .     .  171 

XV    Unity  in  Sentences 187 

XVI    Coherence  in  Sentences 200 

XVII     Emphasis  in  Sentences 220 

XVIII    The  Quality  of  Beauty  in  Sentences  .  234 

WORDS 

XIX    The  Vocabulary 254 

XX    Figures  of  Speech.    Suggestive  Words  .  264 

XXI    Words  to  Avoid .  278 

GOOD  USE 

XXII    Good  Use 286 

XXIII  Idioms.     Translation  English     .     .     .  293 

XXIV  Barbarisms.     Improprieties      ....  300 
XXV    Solecisms 309 

Appendix  A.    Punctuation.    Capitalization     .  325 

Appendix  B.    English  Verse 333 

Index .  349 


PART  I 

PRELIMINARIES,   PARAGRAPHS 
LONGER  THEMES 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF 
RHETORIC  AND  COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  ART  OF  RHETORIC 

I.  In  any  piece  of  writing,  even  a  letter  to  a  friend,  a 
number  of  questions  are  likely  to  occur  that  are  not 
easily  answered.  Usually  the  first  is,  "  What  shall  I 
write  about  ?  "  Many  subjects  come  to  mind,  and  the 
writer  finds  himself  questioning  the  suitability  of  each, 
rejecting  some,  selecting  others.  Suppose  that  out  of 
a  long  list  —  my  bicycle  ride  last  Saturday,  our  foot- 
ball team,  my  new  studies,  the  recovery  of  my  lost 
dog,  and  many  more  —  he  decides  to  begin  with  the 
first.  Immediately  there  are  other  questions :  "  What 
can  I  say  about  that  ride  ?  What  happened  ?  "  In  order 
to  determine  the  treatment  of  the  subject,  he  finds  it 
necessary  to  put  his  mind  actively  to  work  on  that 
particular  experience.  After  he  has  selected  and  ar- 
ranged the  events  in  his  own  mind  and  has  begun  to 
write,  he  is  soon  wondering  how  the  story  will  affect 
his  reader.  "  Will  my  friend  be  amused  by  my  walk 
home  through  the  rain?"  "  Ani  I  making  all  this 
clear  and  interesting  to  him?" 

3 


Preli 


minaries 


2.  Questions  like  these  are  all  the  time  confronting 
the  writers  of  essays,  novels,  and  histories  as  well  as 
the  writers  of  letters.  They  must  be  encountered 
whenever  anything  is  written  that  is  intended  to  be 
read;  and,  whether  in  the  case  of  this  letter  about 
a  bicycle  ride  or  of  a  more  important  composition,  a 
little  consideration  shows  that  these  various  questions 
can  be  grouped  in  three  problems.  There  is  the  prob- 
lem of  the  subject:  what  shall  it  be?  how  shall  it  be 
treated?  There  is  the  problem  of  the  writer:  what 
are  his  thoughts  and  feelings,  and  how  shall  he  ex- 
press them?  There  is  the  problem  of  the  reader:  how 
shall  the  writer's  thoughts  and  feelings  on  certain 
subjects  be  made  clear  and  interesting  to  the  reader? 
Or,  if  we  combine  these,  we  have  the  main  problem  of 
composition, —  how  to  express  our  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings on  any  subject  so  that  they  will  be  clear  and  in- 
teresting to  some  one  else.  The  art  of  doing  this  is 
Rhetoric. 

3-  If  the  student  is  to  learn  to  write  well,  he  should 
begin  by  recognizing  the  problem  of  the  writer.  He 
desires  to  express  his  ideas  in  written  language,  conse- 
quently it  is  necessary  to  discover  what  his  ideas  are. 
This  will  not  be  accomplished  merely  by  holding  a  pen 
over  a  pad  of  paper,  or  even  by  writing  plainly  in  black 
ink.  Nor  can  the  student  discover  what  he  thinks  by 
reading  or  by  listening  to  other  people ;  to  write  well, 
he  must  get  into  the  habit  of  thinking  and  feeling  for 
himself.  He  should  find  out  what  information  he  has 
on  a  subject  and  in  what  way  it  interests  him;  and 


The  Art  of  Rhetoric  5 

when  his  information  and  interest  are  slight,  he  should 
try  to  increase  them.  Frequent  practice  in  writing  will 
in  turn  aid  one  in  thinking  well.  The  best  way  for  the 
student  to  determine  whether  or  not  he  is  thinking 
clearly  on  any  subject  is  to  put  his  thoughts  into  words, 
and  the  best  way  to  ascertain  the  importance  of  his  feel- 
ings is  to  write  them  out  and  see  if  they  interest  some 
one  else.  The  more  he  writes  the  greater  will  be  his 
command  over  ideas;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  will 
never  write  well  until  he  puts  his  mind  to  work. 
4.  In  every  composition  he  must  put  his  mind  to  work 
on  a  particular  subject.  Whether  he  is  writing  that  let- 
ter about  the  bicycle  ride,  or  a  summary  of  Macaulay'is 
Essay  on  Johnson,  or  an  analysis  of  Burke's  Speech  on 
Conciliation  with  America,  or  a  Rhetoric  for  high- 
school  students,  he  must  face  the  problem,  how  shall  I 
treat  this  subject?  The  four  compositions  just  men- 
tioned require  different  treatment  in  length,  arrange- 
ment, and  language;  so  any  subject  requires  a  special 
kind  of  treatment.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  the 
writer  has  plenty  of  ideas  about  his  bicycle  ride,  that 
he  knows  what  road  he  took,  how  he  lost  his  way,  how 
the  collision  occurred,  and  that  he  remembers  how  he 
felt  when  he  fell  from  the  wheel,  and  again  when  it  be- 
gan to  rain,  and  when  he  was  toward  the  end  of  his  five- 
mile  walk.  Here  are  matters  enough;  but  what  shall 
be  rejected,  what  retained;  how  much  of  the  letter  shall 
each  occupy ;  how  shall  they  be  arranged ;  —  in  short, 
how  is  the  writer  to  give  the  best  possible  account  of 
this  particular  excursion  ?     Every  writer,  whether  a  be- 


6  Preliminaries 

ginner  or  a  master,  must  labor  over  the  requirements 
and  opportunities  of  the  subject.  Edmund  Burke 
probably  had  more  ideas  than  any  other  man  of  his 
time,  but  he  did  not  walk  into  the  House  of  Commons 
and  begin  a  speech,  trusting  merely  to  his  wealth  of 
ideas.  Those  who  have  studied  his  Speech  on  Con- 
ciliation know  how  thoroughly  he  had  studied  and  an- 
alyzed his  subject.  So,  in  school  exercises,  the  student 
will  constantly  need  to  remember  that  he  should  try  to 
do  justice  not  only  to  himself  but  also  to  his  subject. 
5-  He  must  consider  as  well  how  to  do  justice  to  the 
reader.  We  have  seen  that  the  style  of  any  piece  of 
writing  will  depend  in  part  on  the  writer  and  in  part  on 
the  subject.  It  ought,  also,  to  be  determined  by  the 
reader.  We  are  writing  that  some  one  may  read,  and 
our  success  in  writing  well  must  always  be  judged  by 
our  readers.  Literature  consists  of  writing  that  has 
delighted  and  interested  the  best  minds  in  every  genera- 
tion; and  though  we  may  not  write  literature,  we  can 
try  to  inform  or  interest  some  one  in  this  generation. 
In  practice  the  student  will  find  it  useful  to  keep  some 
particular  readers  in  mind,  to  remember  that  he  is  not 
writing  exercises  merely  for  the  teacher,  but  for  boys 
in  the  school,  for  the  class,  or  for  his  townspeople. 
The  letter  about  the  bicycle  ride  is  meant  for  a  friend ; 
it  accomplishes  its  purpose  if  it  pleases  him.  This  book 
is  intended  for  boys  and  girls  in  high  schools,  and  un- 
less it  is  clear  and  interesting  to  them,  it  fails  as  a  text- 
book. Macaulay  spared  no  pains  in  revising  and  re- 
writing his  essays  in  order  to  make  them  perfectly  clear, 


The  Art  of  Rhetoric  7 

and,  in  consequence,  the  number  of  his  readers  has  been 
increasing  for  three  quarters  of  a  century.  Though  no 
special  class  is  addressed,  the  reader  should  still  be  kept 
in  mind.  We  may  suppose  ourselves  to  be  addressing 
a  person  of  at  least  average  intelligence,  taste,  and  in- 
formation, and  we  should  consider  not  only  how  the 
subject  appears  to  us,  but  also  how  we  can  present  our 
views. so  that  he  will  understand  and  be  interested  in 
them. 

6.  When  a  style  is  clear  and  interesting,  it  possesses 
two  essential  qualities.  A  style  has  clearness  when  its 
meaning  is  unmistakable,  and  it  has  force  when  it  at- 
tracts and  holds  the  reader's  attention.  There  are  other 
desirable  qualities.  A  style  may  have  rapidity  or  ease 
or  rhythm  or  humor  or  pathos ;  a  great  style  is  not  only 
clear  and  interesting,  it  is  also  delightful.  It  has  the 
quality  that  we  call  charm  or  elegance  or  beauty.  In 
the  selections  from  great  writers  of  prose  in  this  book, 
there  will  be  a  chance  to  study  this  quality  of  beauty  in 
style.  The  student  will  have  made  important  steps, 
however,  in  the  practical  art  of  writing  well  when  he 
can  express  his  ideas  about  a  subject  with  clearness  and 
force. 

7*  We  have  been  applying  "  style  "  to  the  expression 
of  ideas  in  written  language.  Evidently  written  lan- 
guage differs  from  spoken.  Listen  for  a  moment  to 
two  school-girls  conversing,  and  then  turn  to  a  printed 
page. 

"  Is  n't  this  lesson  long?  '' 

"  Yes,  it 's  so  hard  to  remember." 


8  Preli 


minanes 


''  Are  n't  you  going  to  the  class  party  ?  " 
"  I  don't  know.  What  are  you  going  to  wear  ?  " 
"  Oh,  dear!  I  have  n't  thought." 
The  conversation  is  full  of  abbreviations,  the  sentences 
are  brief  and  disconnected,  on  paper  the  matter  is  in- 
significant. We  need  a  knowledge  of  the  persons 
speaking,  a  sight  of  their  faces,  the  sound  of  their 
voices,  to  give  such  talk  any  interest.  Turn  now  to  a 
printed  page  in  a  book.  It  is  not  so  disconnected  or  so 
full  of  abbreviations.  The  words  are  grouped  into  sen- 
tences, the  sentences  into  paragraphs,  the  paragraphs 
into  chapters  with  titles.  Almost  all  printed  compo- 
sitions have  the  same  divisions.  All  themes  —  so  we 
name  short  compositions  —  consist  of  a  number  of  sen- 
tences combined  into  one  or  more  paragraphs.  The  art 
of  rhetoric  teaches  us  how  to  express  our  thoughts  in 
these  various  groups  of  words  —  sentences,  paragraphs, 
and  themes.  We  must  learn  the  ways  and  means  of 
these  units  of  composition. 

8.  What  we  have  been  discussing  so  far  can  be 
summed  up  in  a  few  definitions.  Rhetoric  is  the  art  of 
expressing  our  ideas  to  other  people  by  means  of  writ- 
ten language.  The  expression  in  written  language  is 
called  style,  and  the  process  of  putting  together  words 
to  make  style  is  called  composition.  Rhetoric  teaches 
us  to  do  justice  to  the  writer,  the  subject,  and  the 
reader ;  to  express  our  thoughts  and  feelings  on  a  sub- 
ject so  as  to  impress  the  average  reader.  If  he  under- 
stands and  is  interested,  the  style  is  said  to  have  clear- 
ness and  force.  Every  piece  of  writing  may  be  called 
a  composition;  short  compositions  are  named  themes. 


The  Art  of  Rhetoric  9 

The  units  of  composition  in  which  the  student  is  in- 
terested are  words,  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  themes. 
The  purpose  of  Rhetoric  is  to  teach  him  how  to  use 
these  with  clearness  and  force. 


EXERCISES 

The  Exercises  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  divided  into  two 
sets  numbered  I  and  II.  Those  under  I  provide  (i)  sub- 
jects and  directions  for  themes,  to  be  written  either  in  the  class- 
room or  at  home;  (2)  for  criticisms  of  themes  by  students 
themselves  as  well  as  by  the  teacher ;  (3)  for  drill  on  the  matter 
in  the  text-book;  and  (4)  for  critical  study  of  the  prose  of  the 
best  writers.  Exercises  under  II  are  based  on  the  succeeding  in- 
stead of  the  preceding  chapters  in  the  text.  They  call,  therefore, 
for  original  thinking  and  investigating  on  the  part  of  the  students. 
The  Exercises  may  be  used  in  various  ways.  Some  are 
suitable  for  class-room  work,  some  for  home  work.  An  exer- 
cise may  be  assigned  to  a  single  member  of  the  class  or  to 
several.  Then  the  results  can  be  discussed  and  compared  in 
class.  The  Exercises  under  II  are  adapted  for  such  special 
assignments. 

Directions  for  theme  writing 

1.  A  uniform  size  of  paper  should  be  prescribed  for  the  class. 
In  general,  ruled  white  paper,  about  eight  by  ten  inches  in 
size,  is  preferable.  A  margin  of  an  inch  should  be  ruled  off 
at  the  left  of  the  sheet. 

2.  The  pupil  should  write  on  only  one  side  of  the  paper.  If 
the  theme  occupies  more  than  one  sheet,  each  sheet  should  be 
numbered  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 

3.  The  title  of  the  theme  should  be  written  on  the  first  ruled 
line  of  the  first  page.  The  important  words  of  the  title  should 
begin  with  capitals. 

4.  The  theme  should  be  written  plainly  in  black  ink.  There  is 
no  excuse  for  slovenly  handwriting.  Neither  is  there  any  excuse 
for  careless  spelling  or  grammar. 


lo  Preliminaries 

5,  Each  sheet  should  be  folded  lengthwise,  the  paper  being 
turned  to  the  right  in  folding.  On  the  outside,  at  the  top  of 
the  right  side  of  the  folded  sheet,  should  be  written:  (i)  the 
name  of  the  class;  (2)  the  name  of  the  writer;  (3)  the  date; 
(4)  the  title  of  the  theme;  as  follows: 

English  I.     Section  3. 

John  Jones. 

September  30,  1904. 

The  Last  Day  of  My  Vacation. 

Most  of  these   directions   apply  to  manuscript   prepared   for 
printers  as  well  as  to  themes  for  class. 


1.  In  what  senses  have  you  heard  "  rhetoric  "  used 
besides  that  given  in  the  text?  Compare  your  know- 
ledge of  its  meaning  with  the  definitions  in  an  una- 
bridged dictionary. 

(Every  student  should  make  sure  that  he  knows  how 
to  use  a  dictionary.  He  should  inquire  in  class  in 
regard  to  any  signs  or  abbreviations  the  meaning  of 
which  he  cannot  discover.) 

2.  Of  the  writers  with  whom  you  are  familiar,  which 
has  the  clearest  and  most  forcible  style  ?  Find  a  short 
passage  by  that  writer  or  some  other  which  seems  to 
you  especially  clear  and  forcible. 

3'  Of  the  following  passages,  which  interests  you  the 
most?  Why?  What  in  the  subject-matter  interests 
you?     What  in  the  style? 

I.  My  friend  Sir  Roger,  being  a  good  churchman,  has 
beautified  the  inside  of  his  church  with  several  texts  of 
his  own  choosing;  he  has  likewise  given  a  handsome 


The  Art  of  Rhetoric  1 1 

pulpit  cloth,  and  railed  in  the  communion-table  at  his  own 
expense.  He  has  often  told  me  that  at  his  coming  to  his 
estate  he  found  his  parishioners  very  irregular ;  and  that 
in  order  to  make  them  kneel  and  join  in  the  responses,  he 
gave  every  one  of  them  a  hassock  and  a  common-prayer 
book ;  and  at  the  same  time  employed  an  itinerant  singing- 
master,  who  goes  about  the  country  for  that  purpose,  to 
instruct  them  rightly  in  the  tunes  of  the  Psalms;  upon 
which  they  now  very  much  value  themselves,  and  indeed 
outdo  most  of  the  country  churches  that  I  have  ever  heard. 
As  Sir  Roger  is  landlord  to  the  whole  congregation,  he 
keeps  them  in  very  good  order,  and  will  suffer  nobody  to 
sleep  in  it  besides  himself;  for  if  by  chance  he  has  been 
surprised  into  a  short  nap  at  sermon,  upon  recovering  out 
of  it  he  stands  up  and  looks  about  him,  and  if  he  sees  any- 
body else  nodding,  either  wakes  them  himself,  or  sends 
his  servant  to  them.  Several  other  of  the  old  knight's 
particularities  break  out  upon  these  occasions.  Some- 
times he  will  be  lengthening  out  a  verse  in  the  singing 
psalms,  half  a  minute  after  the  rest  of  the  congregation 
have  done  with  it;  sometimes  when  he  is  pleased  with 
the  matter  of  his  devotion,  he  pronounces  Amen  three 
or  four  times  to  the  same  prayer;  and  sometimes  stands 
up  when  everybody  else  is  upon  their  knees,  to  count  the 
congregation,  or  see  if  any  of  his  tenants  are  missing. 
Joseph  Addison:  The  Spectator. 

2.  The  Old  Manse!  We  had  almost  forgotten  it,  but 
will  return  thither  through  the  orchard.  This  was  set  out 
by  the  last  clergyman  in  the  decline  of  his  life,  when  the 
neighbors  laughed  at  the  hoary-headed  man  for  planting 
trees  from  which  he  could  have  no  prospect  of  gathering 
fruit.  Even  had  that  been  the  case,  there  was  only  so 
much  the  better  motive  for  planting  them  in  the  pure  and 
unselfish  hope  of  benefiting  his  successors — an  end  so 
seldom  achieved  by  more  ambitious  efforts.  But  the  old 
minister,  before  reaching  his  patriarchal  age  of  ninety,  ate 
the  apples  from  the  orchard  during  many  years,  and  added 
silver  and  gold  to  his  annual  stipend  by  disposing  of  the 


1 2  Preliminaries 

superfluity.  It  is  pleasant  to  think  of  him  walking  among 
the  trees  in  the  quiet  afternoons  of  early  autumn  and 
picking  up  here  and  there  an  early  windfall,  while  he  ob- 
serves how  heavily  the  branches  are  weighed  down,  and 
computes  the  number  of  empty  flour  barrels  that  will  be 
filled  with  their  burden.  He  loved  each  tree,  doubtless,  as 
if  it  had  been  his  own  child.  An  orchard  has  a  relation 
to  mankind,  and  readily  connects  itself  with  matters  of 
the  heart.  The  trees  possess  a  domestic  character;  they 
have  lost  the  wild  nature  of  their  forest  kindred,  and  have 
grown  humanized  by  receiving  the  care  of  man  as  well  as 
by  contributing  to  his  wants.  There  is  so  much  individu- 
ality of  character,  too,  among  apple  trees  that  it  gives 
them  an  additional  claim  to  be  the  objects  of  human  in- 
terest. One  is  harsh  and  crabbed  in  its  manifestations ; 
another  gives  us  fruit  as  mild  as  charity.  One  is  churlish 
and  illiberal,  evidently  grudging  the  few  apples  that  it 
bears ;  another  exhausts  itself  in  free-hearted  benevolence. 
The  variety  of  grotesque  shapes  into  which  apple  trees 
contort  themselves  has  its  effect  on  those  who  get  ac- 
quainted with  them :  they  stretch  out  their  crooked 
branches  and  take  such  hold  of  the  imagination  that  we 
remember  them  as  humorists  and  odd  fellows.  And  what 
is  more  melancholy  than  the  old  apple  trees  that  linger 
about  the  spot  where  once  stood  a  homestead,  but  where 
there  is  now  only  a  ruined  chimney  rising  out  of  the 
grassy  and  weed-grown  cellar?  They  offer  their  fruit  to 
every  wayfarer, — apples  that  are  bitter-sweet  with  the 
moral  of  time's  vicissitude. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne:  Mosses  from  an 
Old  Manse. 

3.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  success  of  the  Spectator 
should  have  been  such  as  no  similar  work  has  ever  ob- 
tained. The  number  of  copies  daily  distributed  was  at 
first  three  thousand.  It  subsequently  increased,  and  had 
risen  to  near  four  thousand  when  the  stamp  tax  was  im- 
posed. That  tax  was  fatal  to  a  crowd  of  journals.  The 
Spectator,  however,  stood  its  ground,  doubled  its  price, 


The  Art  of  Rhetoric  13 

and,  though  its  circulation  fell  off,  still  yielded  a  large 
revenue  both  to  the  state  and  to  the  authors.  For  par- 
ticular papers,  the  demand  was  immense;  of  some,  it  is 
said,  twenty  thousand  copies  were  required.  But  this  was 
not  all.  To  have  the  Spectator  served  up  every  morning 
with  the  bohea  and  rolls,  was  a  luxury  for  the  few.  The 
majority  were  content  to  wait  till  essays  enough  had  ap- 
peared to  form  a  volume.  Ten  thousand  copies  of  each 
volume  were  immediately  taken  off,  and  new  editions  were 
called  for.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  the  population 
of  England  was  then  hardly  a  third  of  what  it  now  is. 
The  number  of  Englishmen  who  were  in  the  habit  of 
reading,  was  probably  not  a  sixth  of  what  it  now  is.  A 
shopkeeper  or  a  farmer  who  found  any  pleasure  in  litera- 
ture, was  a  rarity.  Nay,  there  was  doubtless  more  than 
one  knight  of  the  shire  whose  country  seat  did  not  con- 
tain ten  books,  receipt  books  and  books  on  farriery  in- 
cluded. In  these  circumstances,  the  sale  of  the  Spectator 
must  be  considered  as  indicating  a  popularity  quite  as 
great  as  that  of  the  most  successful  works  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  Mr.  Dickens  in  our  own  time. 

Thomas  B.  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Addison. 

4.  Write  a  theme,  not  over  200  words  in  length,  on 
some  subject  especially  interesting  to  you. 

5.  These  themes  (Exercise  4)  should  be  read  in  class 
and  criticized  by  teacher  and  students  in  respect  to  their 
intelligibility  and  interest.  Let  members  of  the  class 
suggest  ways  of  improving  each  theme  in  these  respects. 

6.  Rewrite  the  following  conversation,  retaining  its 
substance  but  not  the  form  of  the  sentences,  using  no 
direct  quotation,  changing  to  the  third  person,  and  put- 
ting it  all  in  one  paragraph. 

"  My  dear  Mr.  Bennet,"  said  his  lady  to  him  one  day, 
"  have  you  heard  that  Netherfield  Park  is  let  at  last?  " 


1 4  Preliminaries 

Mr.  Bennet  replied  that  he  had  not. 

"  But  it  is,"  returned  she ;  ''  for  Mrs.  Long  has  just 
been  here,  and  she  told  me  all  about  it." 

Mr.  Bennet  made  no  answer. 

"  Do  you  not  want  to  know  who  has  taken  it  ?  "  cried 
his  wife  impatiently. 

'*  You  want  to  tell  me,  and  I  have  no  objection  to  hear- 
ing it." 

This  was  invitation  enough. 

"  Why,  my  dear,  you  must  know,  Mrs.  Long  says  that 
Netherfield  is  taken  by  a  young  man  of  large  fortune  from 
the  north  of  England ;  that  he  came  down  on  Monday  in 
a  chaise  and  four  to  see  the  place,  and  was  so  much  de- 
lighted with  it,  that  he  agreed  with  Mr.  Morris  immedi- 
ately; that  he  is  to  take  possession  before  Michaelmas, 
and  some  of  his  servants  are  to  be  in  the  house  by  the  end 
of  next  week." 

''What  is  his  name?" 

"  Bingley." 

"  Is  he  married  or  single  ?  " 

"  Oh !  single,  my  dear,  to  be  sure !  A  single  man  of 
large  fortune ;  four  or  five  thousand  a  year.  What  a  fine 
thing  for  our  girls !  " 

Jane  Austen:  Pride  and  Prejudice. 

II 

7.  Why  are  there  so  many  short  paragraphs  in  the 
conversation  quoted  in  Exercise  6? 

8.  From  the  answers  to  Exercises  2  and  3  and  the 
criticisms  under  Exercise  5,  make  a  list  of  the  different 
means  by  which  clearness  and  force  seem  to  have  been 
secured.  Can  these  means  be  grouped  together  in  a 
few  classes  ?  Can  you  find  a  general  rule  or  principle 
which  will  include  all  the  cases  in  each  one  of  these 
classes  ? 


CHAPTER  II 
RULES  AND  PRINCIPLES 

1.  We  are  writing  for  men  of  intelligence  and  good 
sense ;  to  a  considerable  extent  we  must  do  as  they  do. 
If  men  of  intelligence  use  certain  words  and  construc- 
tions and  do  not  use  certain  others,  we  must  follow  the 
general  practice  in  order  to  be  understood.  Rhetoric 
has  its  foundations,  then,  in  good  use. 

2.  Good  use  means  simply  the  practice  of  reputable 
writers  of  English  to-day.  In  some  particulars  it  is 
uncertain  and  changing,  but  when  the  best  writers  are 
agreed  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  a  word,  the  con- 
struction of  a  sentence,  or  the  way  to  mark  a  paragraph, 
good  use  in  any  of  these  matters  can  be  formulated  into 
a  rule  that  we  must  all  follow.  Such  rules  are  usually 
based  on  good  sense  as  well  as  good  use.  Some  have 
been  collected  in  grammar;  with  these  every  student  of 
Rhetoric  should  be  familiar.  Grammar,  for  example, 
says  that  we  must  not  use  a  singular  verb  with  a  plural 
subject,  because  no  good  writers  do  and  because  it  does 
not  make  good  sense  to  English  readers.  Many  other 
facts  of  good  use  have  been  collected  and  classified  in 
the  dictionaries,  with  which  every  writer  ought  also  to 
be  familiar.     So  the  dictionary  tells  us  that,  although 

15 


1 6  Preli 


minanes 


"  suicide  "  is  used  as  a  verb  by  some  recent  writers,  it 
is  not  so  used  by  the  majority  of  reputable  writers.  In 
many  matters,  then,  good  use  can  tell  us  just  what  to 
do  and  what  not  to  do.  In  grammar,  punctuation,  capi- 
talization, in  the  use  of  words,  in  the  arrangement  of 
words  in  sentences,  in  paragraphing,  we  shall  find  that 
Rhetoric  prescribes  more  or  less  definite  rules.  Later 
in  this  book  we  shall  examine  these  rules  carefully  and 
study  specifically  many  of  their  common  violations ;  and 
meanwhile,  in  practice,  we  shall  be  obliged  to  remember 
that  the  first  care  in  good  writing  is  to  keep  within  the 
limits  of  good  use. 

3.  The  main  part  of  the  work  in  composition  is  not, 
however,  a  matter  of  good  use.  In  order  to  write  well, 
it  is  not  enough  to  do  as  other  people  do ;  we  are  bound 
to  express  our  own  ideas.  Even  if  we  can  write  gram- 
matically and  punctuate  correctly  and  use  only  words 
that  are  found  in  a  good  dictionary,  we  may  still  e  far 
from  solving  the  problem  with  which  we  began  —  to  ex- 
press our  thoughts  and  feelings  so  that  they  will  be 
clear  and  interesting  to  some  one  else.  To  do  this  re- 
quires practice  and  guidance. 

4-  Three  principles  should  be  the  writer's  constant 
guides.  Men  of  ability  have  been  writing  English  for 
many  years;  and  their  styles  have  in  general  been 
found  exact,  forcible,  and  pleasing  as  they  have  been 
in  accord  with  these  principles.  These  principles  are 
at  the  basis  of  all  the  rules  of  structure  for  every  unit 
of  composition,  sentence,  paragraph,  or  theme.  They 
guide,  indeed,  our  thinking  and  many  of  our  actions 


Rules  and  Principles  17 

in  life,  and  they  at  once  commend  themselves  to  our 
good  sense.  We  need,  then,  to  understand  thoroughly 
the  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 
5-  The  principle  of  Unity  governs  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial. To  the  question,  what  thoughts  are  you  to  ex- 
press on  a  given  subject?  Unity  answers,  only  those 
thoughts  which  concern  that  one  subject.  To  the  ques- 
tion, how  are  you  going  to  make  these  thoughts  clear 
to  the  reader  ?  Unity  again  answers,  by  sticking  to  the 
subject.  In  the  composition  of  a  sentence  the  principle 
of  Unity  directs  that  there  should  be  one  main  idea  to 
which  all  others  are  to  be  subordinated  and  connected ; 
and  so  a  paragraph  should  have  its  particular  subject, 
and  contain  sentences  devoted  to  that  subject,  and  no 
others;  so  also  a  longer  composition  should  contain 
only  such  matters  as  are  closely  related  to  its  subject. 
Any  piece  of  composition,  a  sentence,  a  paragraph,  a 
theme,  a  poem,  a  book,  must  center  upon  one  subject, 
—  this  is  the  principle  of  Unity. 

6.  The  principle  of  Coherence  governs  the  arrange- 
ment of  material.  It  requires  that  in  planning  and  or- 
ganizing the  material  for  an  essay,  or  in  combining 
words  and  phrases  into  a  sentence,  we  arrange  the  dif- 
ferent parts  in  a  natural  and  logical  order.  Not  only 
must  each  division  of  a  composition  be  a  unit  by  itself, 
it  must  lead  the  reader  on  easily  and  directly  from  what 
precedes  to  what  follows.  In  every  composition,  from 
the  sentence  to  the  book,  the  ideas  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  their  relations  to  one  another  are  clear, — 
that  is  the  principle  of  Coherence. 


1 8  Preliminaries 

7.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  is  concerned  in  part  with 
the  arrangement,  and  still  more  with  the  proportion,  of 
material.  It  teaches  us  how  to  indicate  to  the  reader 
which  of  our  ideas  are  the  more  important.  Special 
stress  can  be  given  to  an  idea  either  by  discussing  it 
more  fully  than  the  others,  or  by  placing  it  where  it  will 
most  readily  catch  the  reader's  eye,  as  at  the  beginning 
or  the  end  of  a  theme.  So  in  the  smaller  units  of  com- 
position, the  paragraph  and  the  sentence,  Emphasis 
suggests  these  or  other  means  by  which  the  reader's 
valuation  of  our  ideas  can  be  made  to  correspond  with 
our  own.  In  every  composition  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  ideas  should  be  indicated  to  the  reader, 
usually  by  the  amount  of  space  they  occupy  or  by  their 
position, —  this  is  the  principle  of  Emphasis. 

8.  These  three  principles  do  not  supply  fixed  rules  for 
every  procedure.  Each  composition  will  be  different 
from  all  others  and  will  employ  different  means  to  se- 
cure its  ends ;  it  cannot  be  constructed  by  rule.  Every 
composition,  however,  that  follows  these  guiding  prin- 
ciples will  be  like  a  well-organized  army.  In  place  of 
companies,  battalions,  regiments,  and  brigades,  it  will 
be  composed  of  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  chapters, 
and  the  smallest  division  as  well  as  the  largest  will  be 
a  unit  under  the  direction  of  a  single  commander,  its 
subject,  and  all  the  divisions  will  unite  and  cooperate 
in  their  proper  order  under  the  command  of  the  main 
subject.  The  different  divisions  will  take  their  proper 
places  and  will  maintain  their  connections  with  the 
neighboring  divisions,  in  order  that  each  may  best  pro- 


Rules  and  Principles  19 

mote  the  work  of  the  whole;  and  the  most  important 
positions  and  the  most  difficult  work  will  be  assigned  to 
the  strongest  and  best-equipped  battalions.  The  mas- 
tery of  the  art  of  Rhetoric,  as  of  any  art  involving 
structure  or  organization,  must  be  accomplished  under 
the  guidance  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 


EXERCISES 

I 

1.  Examine  carefully  the  paragraph  from  Macaulay's 
Essay  on  Addison.  (Exercise  3,  Chapter  i.)  Why 
does  the  first  word  begin  some  distance  to  the  right  of 
the  margin  ?  Why  does  it  begin  with  a  capital  ?  Why 
are  periods  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  sentences  ?  What 
is  the  subject  of  the  paragraph?  Does  it  observe  the 
principle  of  Unity?  Can  you  change  the  order  of  any 
of  the  sentences  without  injuring  the  coherence  of  the 
paragraph  ?  What  else  do  you  notice  in  the  paragraph 
that  is  dictated  by  good  use ;  what  by  the  three  princi- 
ples of  composition? 

2.  Write  a  short  theme,  without  consulting  the  book, 
on  some  matter  in  Chapter  i  or  2  that  especially  in- 
terested you.     (In  class,  15  minutes.) 

3'  Write  a  theme  of  not  over  150  words  on  some  ex- 
perience of  yours  during  the  past  week.  Try  to  make 
the  theme  interesting  to  the  class.  These  are  to  be 
criticized  for  observance  of  good  use  and  general  in- 
terest. 


2  o  Preliminaries 

4-  Compare  the  results  from  Exercise  8,  Chapter  i, 
with  the  text  of  Chapter  2.  How  many  of  the  means 
discovered  for  securing  clearness  and  force  can  be  clas- 
sified under  Good  Use,  under  Unity,  Coherence,  Em- 
phasis?    How  many  are  not  included  in  this  chapter? 

5.  Write  short  themes  of  200  words,  adopting  one  of 
these  outlines : 

A  Fudge  Party.     The  hostess ;  the  guests ;  what  we  talked 

about;  what  we  did. 
Character  of  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield.     Select  four  or  five 

important  traits ;  take  them  up  in  order,  placing  the 

most  characteristic  last. 
My  Favorite  Magazine.     What  is  it?     Four  reasons  for 

your  preference ;  place  the  most  important  last. 
What  Happened  in  the  Recitation.     Entrance  of  the  class ; 

subject  of  lesson;  various  mistakes  of  the  recitation; 

the  approach  of  the  end  of  the  hour. 
The  University  in  "  The  Princess."     Location ;  appear- 
ance of  buildings  and  grounds ;  students ;  aims ;  glimpse 

of  the  princess. 
A  Foot-ball  Eleven.     The  forwards  ;  the  backs  ;  the  duties 

of  several  positions ;  end  with  the  most  difficult. 

6.  Themes  may  be  written  from  time  to  time  in  the 
form  of  a  letter,  as  in  the  following: 

1.  A  statement  of  the  studies  you  have  had  in  the  high 
school,  written  to  a  college  instructor. 

2.  A  brief  account  of  the  opening  day  at  school,  such  as 
might  be  printed  in  the  town  paper. 

3.  A  letter  urging  new  students  to  join  the  debating  so- 
ciety, such  as  might  be  printed  in  a  school  paper. 

4.  A  letter  to  the  foot-ball  captain  of  a  neighboring 
school,  endeavoring  to  arrange  a  game. 


Rules  and  Principles  21 

5.  A  letter  asking  for  a  position  during  the  summer, 
stating  references  and  qualifications.  Let  these  be  read 
in  class,  and  let  the  class  decide  which  is  most  likely  to 
obtain  the  position. 


II 

7.  Hand  in  a  list  of  five  subjects  on  which  you  would 
like  to  write  short  themes.  These  will  be  discussed  in 
class,  and  may  later  be  used  for  themes. 


CHAPTER  III 
WHAT  TO  WRITE  ABOUT 

1.  The  two  preceding  chapters  have  not  considered  a 
question  that  often  seems  to  the  student  the  most  im- 
portant of  all, —  What  is  there  to  write  about  ?  Where 
is  he  to  find  material  which  will  be  of  interest  to  read- 
ers of  average  taste  and  intelligence,  and  which  he  can 
make  into  themes  under  the  guidance  of  good  use  and 
the  principles  of  composition?  The  material  for  all 
kinds  of  writing,  themes  or  books,  must  be  drawn  from 
experience  or  reading.  In  either  case  a  writer  must 
choose  subjects  that  he  has  ideas  about  and  is  interested 
in.  Then  he  will  have  something  to  start  with ;  he  will 
not  continue  to  ask,  what  shall  I  write  about  this  ?  but 
rather,  what  do  I  think  about  this  ? 

2.  Our  experience  includes  games,  studies,  amuse- 
ments, thoughts,  conversations,  adventures,  and  much 
else.  Whatever  we  are  doing,  the  great  world  and  all 
its  happenings,  life  and  all  its  emotions,  these  furnish 
the  material  for  literature,  and  they  furnish  material 
for  the  beginner.  In  the  exercises  in  this  book  there  are 
many  lists  of  topics,  taken  mostly  from  students' 
themes;  these  may  in  themselves  prove  interesting,  or 
they  may  suggest  similar  topics ;  but  a  student  cannot 

22 


What  to  Write  About  23 

begin  too  early  to  make  an  effort  to  discover  in  the 
events,  persons,  and  places  of  his  own  daily  life  interest- 
ing material  for  his  themes.  Often  merely  the  inquiry, 
what  interested  me  most  to-day  ?  will  provoke  a  subject 
in  reply.  If  something  novel,  entertaining,  or  amusing, 
or  something  of  general  interest,  has  occurred,  so  much 
the  better;  but  commonplace  matters  may  also  afford 
good  subjects.  Perhaps  the  only  matter  of  interest  that 
occurs  to  the  writer  is  the  new  street  being  constructed 
in  front  of  his  house;  a  careful  account  of  that  will 
surely  supply  useful  practice.  Or  perhaps  nothing  ex- 
cept his  geometry  lesson  comes  to  his  mind.  Well,  a 
theme  on  "  How  I  Study  Geometry,"  might  be  profit- 
able to  the  teacher,  the  writer,  and  other  members  of 
the  class.  In  fact,  we  are  all  a  good  deal  interested  in 
what  other  people  are  doing  and  thinking,  and  that  is 
why  we  write  and  read  so  much.  Whatever  is  interest- 
ing to  one  person  can  by  the  power  of  good  style  usu- 
ally be  made  interesting  to  many  other  persons. 
3»  There  are  a  few  bits  of  advice  to  be  kept  in  mind 
by  the  young  writer  in  choosing  subjects  from  experi- 
ence. In  the  first  place,  he  should  not  try  to  tell  what 
he  imagined,  but  rather  what  he  saw  or  did.  Fanciful 
pictures,  reminiscences  of  imaginary  lives,  or  attempts 
at  pathos  or  sentiment  unrelated  to  one's  experience,  are 
likely  to  result  in  feeble  imitations  of  something  read, 
and  really  afford  little  play  to  the  writer's  own  ideas. 
There  is  scope  enough  for  the  imagination  in  combin- 
ing various  details  of  a  scene  so  as  to  present  a  mental 
picture  to  the  reader,  or  in  describing  a  real  person  so 


24  Preliminaries 

as  to  suggest  his  appearance  distinctly.  Good  fiction  is 
based  on  a  wide  experience  with  fact,  and  the  writer 
ambitious  for  excellence  will  do  well  in  the  beginning 
to  base  his  fancies  on  realities  and,  in  the  main,  to  stick 
closely  to  fact.  In  the  second  place,  he  should  write 
about  something  that  has  happened  recently,  on  the 
very  day  of  writing,  if  possible,  or  within  a  week  or  so. 
Events  of  a  year  ago  are  likely  to  become  vague  in  the 
memory.  There  is  no  better  practice  than  the  effort  to 
observe  and  give  expression  to  one's  immediate  sur- 
roundings. In  the  third  place,  the  student  should  re- 
member that  sensational  or  unusual  events  are  not 
always  the  most  entertaining.  The  three  selections  in 
Exercise  3,  Chapter  i,  deal  with  the  eccentric  conduct 
of  an  old  gentleman  at  church,  the  circulation  of  a 
periodical,  and  the  fruit  in  an  orchard.  These  are  not 
thrilling  subjects,  but  they  are  treated  interestingly. 
The  imagination  is  best  trained  not  by  dealing  with 
the  strange  and  marvelous,  but  by  finding  interest  in 
common,  every-day  occurrences. 

4.  For  many  themes  the  student  will  do  well  to  go  to 
his  reading  rather  than  to  experience.  There  is  surely 
much  to  interest  him  there.  He  may  try  to  rewrite  in 
his  own  words  some  incident,  or  to  give  his  opinion  of 
a  character  from  the  novel  he  is  reading.  Or  he  may 
give  in  a  few  sentences  the  gist  of  an  article  that  enter- 
tained him  in  the  last  magazine.  Or  he  may  take  some 
topic  about  which  he  has  read  a  good  deal,  the  new 
flying-machine,  the  need  of  a  park  system  in  his  city, 
or  elective  courses  in  the  high  school.     Some  subjects 


What  to  Write  About  25 

will  clearly  be  too  large  to  be  treated  in  short  themes, 
if  not  too  large  for  his  knowledge.  Such,  for  example, 
are,  "Coeducation,"  "Peace,"  "Ideals,"  "Prohibi- 
tion." In  making  use  of  his  reading  as  of  his  experi- 
ence, he  should  keep  to  subjects  within  his  grasp,  for  it 
is  only  on  these  that  there  is  any  possibility  of  his 
saying  something  worthy  the  attention  of  some  one 
else. 

5-  If  he  keeps  to  subjects  that  he  knows  something 
about,  he  need  not  fear  that  his  compositions  will  there- 
fore become  commonplace.  Originality  does  not  de- 
pend on  the  novelty  or  importance  of  the  subject,  but 
on  the  way  the  subject  is  treated.  In  the  "  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  "  there  is  an  account  of  the  Pyncheon 
hens.  The  subject  is  not  very  remarkable,  but  the  treat- 
ment is  original.  The  goal  at  which  we  should  aim  is 
not  so  much  the  ability  to  write  a  thrilling  report  of  a 
railway  accident  or  an  oration  on  "  Ambition,"  as  the 
ability  to  write  about  hens  in  an  interesting  way. 
6.  Moreover,  if  the  student  keeps  to  subjects  that  he 
knows  something  about,  he  will  soon  find  his  know- 
ledge increasing  in  definiteness  and  variety.  Searching 
a  book  for  theme-subjects  will  increase  his  acquain- 
tance with  the  book,  and  searching  the  incidents  of  the 
day  will  increase  his  power  of  observation  of  people 
and  nature.  He  ought  to  find  not  only  that  his  ability 
to  write  clearly  and  directly  is  increasing,  but  also  that 
his  thoughts  move  faster  and  his  interest  in  the  world 
around  him  is  growing  keener.  These  results  will  be 
accomplished  more  quickly  if  he  will  keep  a  note-book 


2  6  Preliminaries 

and  write  in  it  subjects  as  they  occur  to  him,  together 
with  suggestions  for  their  treatment;  in  this  way  he 
will  accumulate  a  store  of  material.  To  such  a  seeker 
after  matters  to  write  about,  a  well-known  couplet  by 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson  proffers  some  cheerful  wisdom 
that  may  well  be  kept  in  mind.  It  would  make  a  good 
motto  for  the  note-book. 

The  world  is  so  full  of  a  number  of  things, 
I  'm  sure  we  should  all  be  as  happy  as  kings. 

7.  The  gist  of  this  chapter  can  be  put  into  three  sen- 
tences. In  choosing  subjects  a  writer  may  go  to  his 
experience  and  reading.  From  experience  he  should 
take  those  that  are  matters  of  recent  and  not  too  un- 
usual fact ;  from  reading  he  should  take  topics  concern- 
ing which  he  has  definite  information.  Let  him  keep  a 
cheerful  lookout  for  subjects  and  write  them  down  in  a 
note-book. 


EXERCISES 

I 

I.  Write  a  theme  of  150  to  200  words  on  one  of  the 
following  topics.  Some  should  be  criticized  in  class 
by  teacher  and  students  mainly  in  respect  to  their  in- 
terest and  intelligibility  and  violations  of  good  use. 

1.  What  Interested  Me  Most  To-day. 

2.  The  Last  Book  I  Read;  Why  I  Liked  It. 

3.  Our  Cat. 


what  to  Write  About  27 

4.  My  Sunday-School  Class. 

5.  What  is  a  Bank  Cheek? 

6.  A  Grocery  Store. 

7.  A  Newspaper  Cartoon. 

8.  A  True  Ghost  Story, 

2.  Hand  in  one  subject  drawn  from  recent  experience, 
one  from  some  book,  one  from  a  newspaper  or  maga- 
zine. These  should  be  criticized  by  the  class  with  ref- 
erence to  their  suitability  for  short  themes. 
3-  The  two  following  themes  by  students  deal  with 
the  same  subject  and  similar  material.  Which  is  more 
interesting  ?  Why  ?  Which  has  the  more  ideas  ?  Does 
either  violate  any  of  the  principles  of  composition? 
How?  Criticize  any  violations  of  good  use  in  either. 
Would  you  change  words  or  sentences  in  either?  Are 
there  any  mistakes  in  grammar,  spelling,  or  punctua- 
tion? 

MY  ROOM 

The  distinctive  feature  of  my  room  is  the  shelf,  about 
six  inches  broad,  extending  all  around  six  feet  from  the 
floor.  It  is  of  the  same  wood  as  the  doors  and  is  supported 
by  little  brackets.  This  shelf  separates  the  two  kinds  of 
wall-paper  and  so  limits  the  picture  space,  for  I  hang  no 
pictures  on  the  upper  part.  My  shelf  holds  all  the  articles 
always  found  in  a  girl's  room;  countless  photographs, 
bric-a-brac  not  all  beautiful,  and  trifles,  usually  mingled 
helter-skelter.  At  present,  however,  the  arrangement  is 
carefully  planned,  though  this  is  known  only  to  me.  On 
one  shelf  I  have  my  favorite  things ;  photographs  of  my 
best  friends,  my  favorite  books  in  the  place  of  honor,  and 
a  few  ornaments,  statuettes  and  vases.  On  the  wall  be- 
neath is  my  dearly  beloved  Keats  in  a  white  frame,  Theo- 
dor  Korner  with  his  sad  eyes,  and  an  "  Aurora." 

Another  wall  I  call  my  baby  wall.     The  faces  of  some 


2  8  Preliminaries 

of  my  little  friends,  framed  and  unframed,  are  on  the 
shelf  and  on  the  wall;  along  with  a  quaint  Greenaway 
girl ;  a  "  Baby  Stuart " ;  and  a  Dutch  baby,  round-headed 
and  big-eyed.  Here,  too,  is  a  Bodenhausen  Madonna 
and  a  plaster  angel  head.  A  little  iron  Brownie  stands 
cheek  by  jowl  with  a  dainty  Japanese  lady  from  the  Pan- 
American  who  shakes  her  head  and  smiles  sweetly. 

The  other  things  are  not  arranged  in  any  order.  There 
are  several  wrought-iron  candelabra  with  green  candles, 
a  gilt  clock,  a  monkey  supporting  a  basket  of  cherries, 
and  an  inlaid  writing-case  once  my  mother's.  On  the 
walls  are  a  few  landscapes,  a  pen-and-ink  girl  in  cap  and 
gown,  and  a  few  good  photographs. 

The  best  of  my  room  no  one  but  myself  feels,  and  that 
is  its  suggestiveness.  Everything  has  its  own  associated 
ideas.  In  one  corner  is  a  collection  of  party  souvenirs, 
dance  programs,  supper-cards,  class  and  school  ribbons, 
a  little  mandolin  from  our  first  spread,  all  with  a  host  of 
memories.  Every  kodak  picture  has  a  tale  of  happiness. 
Here  is  one  of  a  merry  camp  on  the  Lake  Shore;  here, 
one  of  an  outing  party  in  Canada.  These  candlesticks 
were  eighteenth  birthday  gifts  from  a  beloved  uncle. 
This  one  was  won  at  a  Hallowe'en  party.  The  monkey 
was  at  my  plate,  filled  with  candied  cherries,  at  a  Wash- 
ington's Birthday  fancy-dress  party.  And  the  teapot! 
What  memories  of  impromptu  lunches  and  cosy  talks  has 
it  not  curled  up  in  its  fat  little  body.  What  suggestive- 
ness in  the  bonbonniere ;  in  the  teacups,  gifts  of  friends ! 

HOW    I   FURNISHED    MY   ROOM 

When  we  moved  into  our  new  home,  my  sister  and  I 
were  given  a  front  corner  room  to  furnish  as  we  liked.  It 
is  a  very  large  room  containing  a  bay  window  in  front  and 
two  windows  on  the  side.  When  we  were  about  to  fur- 
nish our  room  the  first  question  that  puzzled  us  the  most 
was,  what  we  should  have  for  the  predominating  color,  but 
as  we  had  a  good  many  pieces  of  furniture  and  sofa  cush- 
ions of  blue  material,  we  decided  to  have  it  a  blue  room. 


What  to  Write  About  29 

So  we  got  blue  matting  for  the  floor  and  laid  rugs  all 
over  it;  two  blue  ones  are  of  fur  and  an  oriental  rug. 
My  sister  then  made  a  dressing  table  and  covered  it  with 
blue  and  white  silkoline  and  with  some  more  of  this  made 
a  bedspread  with  a  deep  flounce.  We  made  our  own  cur- 
tains of  white  mulle  with  a  row  of  insertion  near  the  edge, 
and  trimmed  the  edge  with  a  lace  edging. 

On  one  side  of  the  room  we  put  the  brass  bed,  tea-table 
and  a  bookcase  on  which  are  found  books  of  all  kinds. 
On  another  side  of  the  room  is  the  chiffonier  and  the 
tete.  The  top  of  the  chiffonier  is  covered  with  photo- 
graphs and  bric-a-brac,  while  the  tete  is  covered  with  pil- 
lows, and  sometimes  when  we  are  in  a  hurry  and  have 
not  time  to  hang  up  our  things,  this  tete  answers  for  a 
clothes-rack.  Now  turning  to  the  other  side  of  the  room 
is  my  sister's  dressing  table  on  which  is  every  useful  article 
from  a  nail-file  to  a  jewelry-box  and  on  the  desk  next  to 
the  table  are  a  candelabra,  fancy  inkstand,  pens,  ink,  note- 
paper  and  books.  Hanging  on  the  wall  near  the  desk  is 
a  ham  which  would  take  an  expert  to  discover  whether  it 
is  eatable  or  not.  This  ham  is  a  bonbon  box  and  at  one 
time  was  filled  with  candy.  In  the  front  of  the  room  is 
the  window-seat  and  my  dressing  table  on  which  are 
many  pictures  and  other  things  necessary  to  complete  a 
lady's  toilet.  The  walls  of  our  room  are  covered  with  pic- 
tures, photographs  and  advertisements,  which  character- 
ize a  girl's  room. 

Our  room  not  only  answers  for  a  sleeping  room,  but 
also  a  sitting  room  and  study  where  we  get  most  of  our 
lessons.  We  took  a  great  deal  of  pride  in  fixing  up 
our  room,  and  now  it  is  one  of  the  prettiest  rooms  in 
the  house. 


4.  In  themes  on  the  following  subjects  especial  care 
must  be  taken  to  make  them  of  interest  to  a  special  class 
of  readers.  Write  on  one  of  these  or  on  a  similar 
subject. 


30 


Preliminaries 


A  Day  on  the  Farm ; — for  a  city  boy. 

A  Game  of  Foot-ball ;— f or  a  girl. 

How  to  Use  a  Kodak ; — for  some  one  who  has  never  used 

one. 
An  Experiment  in  Physics; — for  some  one  who  has  not 

done  it. 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  one  of  the  following  poems  in 
200  words.  Use  your  own  words ;  give  only  the  main 
events ;  do  not  begin  at  the  same  place  that  the  poem 
does. 

Tennyson.    Dora,    The  Lotos  Eaters. 

Longfellow.     King  Robert  of  Sicily.     The  Skeleton  in 

Armor. 
Byron.     The  Prisoner  of  Chillon. 
Browning.     The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin.     Herve  Riel. 
Coleridge.    The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner. 


II 

6.  Examine  the  titles  of  the  editorials  in  a  good  news- 
paper, the  articles  in  a  recent  magazine.  Report  to  the 
class  a  list  of  five  titles  which  particularly  attracted  you. 
State  three  qualities  which  seem  to  you  particularly  de- 
sirable in  the  title  of  a  newspaper  editorial. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SUBJECT  AND  TITLE 

1.  After  the  student  has  found  a  subject,  he  must  de- 
termine how  long  his  composition  is  to  be.  This  is  a 
very  practical  question  with  all  writers.  The  news- 
paper reporter  is  given  so  much  space  to  fill ;  the  story 
for  a  magazine  must  be  of  a  certain  length;  the  editor 
of  a  school  paper  is  frequently  asked  by  the  printer  to 
fill  up  half  a  column;  even  Shakespeare  was  obliged  to 
write  plays  that  could  be  acted  in  three  hours.  The 
treatment  of  any  subject  will  depend  largely  on  the 
length  of  the  composition,  and  oftentimes  a  writer  must 
fit  the  subject  itself  to  his  space. 

2.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  student  is  asked  for  a  theme 
of  not  over  200  words,  and  that  he  wishes  to  write 
about  athletics.  In  200  words  he  evidently  cannot 
include  all  sorts  of  games  and  exercises  in  all  the  coun- 
tries of  the  world.  He  must  narrow  the  subject.  A 
moment's  consideration  convinces  him  that  he  wants 
to  write  about  foot-ball,  or  perhaps  basket-ball.  Still 
the  subject  is  too  broad,  for  there  is  an  immense 
amount  written  every  year  in  regard  to  foot-ball.  He 
may  narrow  his  subject  to,  "  Foot-ball  in  Our  School," 
and  again  to,  "  Our  Prospects  for  a  Good  Eleven," 
which  is  really  the  subject  that  interests  him.     Or 

31 


3  2  Preliminaries 

"  Basket-ball "  might  be  narrowed  to,  *'  How  Basket- 
ball is  Played,"  or  to,  "  My  First  Game  of  Basket-ball/' 
If  the  theme  were  to  contain  400  words,  somewhat 
broader  subjects  would  be  needed.  In  any  case,  a  sub- 
ject can  be  narrowed  or  enlarged  until  it  is  adapted  to 
the  required  length  of  the  theme. 
3.  After  a  writer  has  fitted  his  subject  to  his  theme, 
he  must  find  a  title.  A  title  is  the  name  or  label  by 
which  a  composition  is  offered  to  the  reader.  Some- 
times a  subject  first  occurs  to  a  writer  in  words  that 
will  make  a  good  title;  but  oftener,  after  he  has  deter- 
mined on  a  subject,  he  will  still  have  to  search  for  an 
appropriate  name  with  which  to  introduce  it.  He 
should  consider  both  the  character  of  his  composition 
and  the  tastes  of  his  readers.  A  scientific  article  needs 
an  exact  title,  so  that  scholars  may  know  just  what  it  is 
about ;  a  novel  needs  rather  a  title  that  will  recommend 
it  to  a  large  body  of  readers.  The  title  of  this  chapter 
is  not  very  attractive,  but  it  is  intended  to  tell  student 
and  teacher  what  the  chapter  is  about.  "  Kidnapped," 
the  title  of  one  of  Stevenson's  novels,  gives  a  hint  of 
the  plot  and  excites  the  interest  of  any  one  who  likes 
stories  of  adventure.  If  the  theme  on  the  prospects  of 
the  eleven  were  to  be  an  editorial  in  the  school  paper, 
"  Our  Prospects  in  Foot-ball "  would  be  a  good  title, 
although  "  Our  Eleven ''  would  perhaps  be  better,  be- 
cause briefer  and  hence  more  likely  to  catch  the  eye. 
There  is  rarely  any  reason  for  a  lengthy  title,  and  some- 
times exactness  should  be  sacrificed  for  brevity.  In 
general,  we  may  conclude  that  a  title  should  be  brief, 


Subject  and  Title  33 

should  give  some  idea  of  the  subject-matter,  and  should 
attract  the  attention  of  the  readers  for  whom  it  is  in- 
tended. 

4.  Titles  should  be  chosen  for  all  themes  of  400 
words  or  more.  In  shorter  themes,  titles  will  certainly 
do  no  harm,  though  they  are  less  necessary.  One 
word  of  caution  is  important.  The  title  is  to  be  written 
on  the  first  line  of  the  page,  and  is  not  to  be  connected 
with  the  first  sentence  of  the  composition.  The  theme 
entitled  "  Our  Eleven*'  should  not  begin,  "  It  is  a  good 
one,"  but,  "  Our  eleven  is  a  good  one."  The  opening 
sentence  should  begin  on  a  new  line  and  should  be  intel- 
ligible without  a  glance  at  the  title. 
5-  With  these  matters  of  subject  and  title,  we  have  fin- 
ished with  the  preliminaries  of  composition.  We  are 
now  ready  to  examine  the  problems  of  writer,  subject, 
and  reader  under  various  conditions,  and  to  study  the 
application  of  the  rules  of  good  use  and  the  principles 
of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  to  the  writing  of 
themes  and  their  different  divisions.  We  shall  begin 
with  a  very  important  unit  of  composition,  the  para- 
graph. 

EXERCISES 
I 

1.  Take  five  of  the  subjects  handed  in  under  Exercise 

2,  Chapter  3;  narrow  these  to  subjects  suited  for 
themes  of  200  words;  then  find  titles  for  them. 


34 


Preliminaries 


2.    Reduce  the  following  subjects  to  topics  suitable  for 
themes  of  400  words : 


Electricity. 
Spelling  Reform. 
Boycotting. 
Ivanhoe. 
Abraham  Lincoln. 


Advertisements. 

Politics. 

Ideals. 

Prohibition  of  the  Liquor  Traffic. 


3.     From  each  of  the  following  form  four  subjects  and 
titles  for  short  themes : 


Newspapers. 
Manual  Training. 
Recitations. 
Bicycling. 


Longfellow's  Poems. 
Hawthorne's  Novels. 
Some  Things  which  I  Enjoy. 


4.  Would  "  Material  "  be  a  better  title  than  "  What  to 
Write  About  "  for  Chapter  3  of  this  book? 

5.  Discuss  the  following  titles,  and  decide  how  far 
they  are  good : 


Sesame  and  Lilies. 


Treasure  Island. 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse. 


The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
Writing  in  English. 

Koch  on  Tuberculosis. 


Lectures  on  how  and  what 
to  read,  and  on  the  edu- 
cation of  girls. 

A  story  of  pirates  and  a 
search   for  treasure. 

A  collection  of  stories 
written  in  an  old  manse 
in  Concord. 

An  elementary  text-book  in 
English. 

An  editorial  article  of  a 
column  on  Dr.  Koch's 
theories  in  regard  to  tu- 
bercle bacilli  in  men  and 
cattle. 


Subject  and  Title 


35 


Electricity  for  Everybody. 


Through  Jungle  and  Desert. 

Twenty  Thousand  Leagues 

under  the  Sea. 
Gold  Coins  among  the  Gifts 

of  their   Friends. 


*'  The  book  is  calculated 
to  give  any  one  hav- 
ing no  previous  general 
knowledge  of  electricity 
a  fair  general  knowledge 
of  the  subject." 

A  book  of  travels  in  eastern 
Africa. 


A  newspaper   report  of  a 
golden  wedding. 


6.  Find  titles  for  each  of  the  first  five  chapters  in 
"Ivanhoe";  for  each  paragraph  of  Chapter  3  of  this 
book;  for  each  of  the  selections  in  Exercise  3  of 
Chapter  i. 

II 

7.  Examine  the  themes  in  Chapter  3,  Exercise  3,  in 
regard  to  their  paragraph  structure.  How  are  the 
paragraphs  indicated?  Does  each  observe  or  violate 
the  three  principles  of  composition  ?  Suggest  some  cor- 
rections or  improvements. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  UNIT 

1.  A  composition  is  made  up  of  paragraphs,  but  these 
are  not  merely  divisions.  Each  paragraph  is  a  unit  by 
itself,  a  group  of  sentences  dealing  with  a  single  sub- 
ject, a  whole  composition  on  a  small  scale.  The  ex- 
ternal form  of  a  paragraph  may  be  seen  by  examining 
any  book.  Each  chapter  in  this  book,  for  instance,  is 
divided  into  a  number  of  paragraphs,  ranging  in  length 
from  50  to  300  words;  and  the  beginning  of  each 
paragraph  is  marked  by  the  indention  of  the  first  word. 
In  manuscript  the  first  word  of  each  paragraph  should 
begin  a  full  inch  to  the  right  of  the  margin.  This  in- 
dention is  to  aid  the  reader's  eye. 

2.  The  importance  of  the  principles  of  composition  in 
their  application  to  the  paragraph  can  best  be  seen  by 
writing  themes  of  a  single  paragraph.  The  student 
must  remember,  however,  that  all  that  can  be  said  of 
the  paragraph  by  itself  applies  equally  well  to  the  para- 
graph when  it  is  a  small  part  of  the  composition.  The 
paragraph  by  itself  is  not  uncommon.  The  description 
of  a  person  or  a  scene,  an  anecdote,  an  expression  of 
opinion,  a  comment  on  some  book,  are  matters  that 
can  often  be  treated  in  paragraphs  of   100  or  200 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit       37 

words.  Such  paragraphs  are  complete  in  themselves; 
they  are  in  every  respect  whole  compositions.  In  such 
short  compositions  the  writer  is  obliged  to  solve  the  im- 
portant problems  of  the  choice  and  limitation  of  sub- 
ject; the  selection,  arrangement,  and  proportion  of 
material.  Moreover,  all  these  problems  must  be  solved 
with  the  greatest  economy  of  space.  In  writing  single 
paragraphs,  then,  we  have  one  of  the  best  practical 
means  of  realizing  the  value  of  the  three  principles  as 
aids  in  actually  expressing  our  ideas. 
3.  Writing  single  paragraphs  gives  especially  good 
training  in  the  principle  of  Unity.  A  single  topic  is  to 
be  stated,  explained,  illustrated,  and  enforced  without 
any  digressions,  and  is  to  be  as  fully  developed  as 
possible  in  lOO  or  200  words.  The  writer  must  first 
make  sure  that  he  has  a  topic  on  which  he  has  enough 
to  say  to  fill  a  paragraph,  and  yet  a  topic  narrow  enough 
for  interesting  treatment  within  such  scanty  limits. 
Then  he  must  take  care  that  no  irrelevant  or  unimpor- 
tant sentences  or  clauses  slip  in,  and  that  everything  in 
the  paragraph  bears  directly  on  the  topic.  Perhaps  the 
best  test  of  Unity  is  to  see  if  the  substance  of  the  para- 
graph can  be  put  into  a  single  sentence,  and  if  every- 
thing in  the  paragraph  can  be  properly  considered  a  de- 
velopment of  that  sentence. 

4-  The  principle  of  Coherence  requires  that  the  ideas 
in  a  paragraph  be  presented  in  a  natural  and  evident 
sequence.  When  a  chronological  order  is  possible,  it 
should  usually  be  followed;  but  when  it  is  impossible, 
some  logical  arrangement  must  be  found.     The  logical 


3  8  Paragraphs 

order  is  always  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from 
the  near  to  the  remote,  and  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown.  Thus,  a  comparison  of  an  object  with  some- 
thing well  known  might  lead  to  a  consideration  of  its 
unknown  qualities,  and  a  simple  definition  should  pre- 
cede more  elaborate  and  complete  explanations  of  a 
topic.  Care  must  be  taken  to  introduce  the  subject 
simply  and  clearly  with  a  sentence  wholly  intelligible 
to  the  reader,  then  the  paragraph  may  be  built  up  step 
by  step  to  the  conclusion.  Note  the  logical  progress  of 
ideas  in  the  following  paragraphs ;  in  the  first  the  de- 
tails have  an  order  in  time,  but  in  the  second  and  third 
the  details  are  not  events  and  have  no  order  in  time,  yet 
their  relation  to  one  another  is  clear. 

Without  the  scene  was  repeated.  At  the  first  instant 
of  realization  in  the  Wigwam  a  man  on  the  platform  had 
shouted  to  a  man  stationed  on  the  roof,  "  Hallelujah ;  Abe 
Lincoln  is  nominated !  "  A  cannon  boomed  the  news  to 
the  multitude  below,  and  twenty  thousand  throats  took 
up  the  cry.  The  city  heard  it,  and  one  hundred  guns  on 
the  Tremont  House,  innumerable  whistles  on  the  river 
and  lake  front,  on  locomotives  and  factories,  and  the 
bells  in  all  the  steeples,  broke  forth.  For  twenty-four 
hours  the  clamor  never  ceased.  It  spread  to  the  prairies, 
and  before  morning  they  were  afire  with  pride  and  ex- 
citement. 

Ida  M.  Tarbell:  Life  of  Lincoln. 

The  harbour  of  Constantinople,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  an  arm  of  the  Bosphorus,  obtained,  in  a  very  re- 
mote period,  the  denomination  of  the  Golden  Horn.  The 
curve  which  it  describes  might  be  compared  to  the  horn 
of  a  stag,  or  as  it  should  seem,  with  more  propriety,  to 
that  of  an  ox.     The  epithet  of  golden  was  expressive  of 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit       39 

the  riches  which  every  wind  wafted  from  the  most  dis- 
tant countries  into  the  secure  and  capacious  port  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  river  Lycus,  formed  by  the  conflux  of 
two  little  streams,  pours  into  the  harbour  a  perpetual  sup- 
ply of  fresh  water,  which  serves  to  cleanse  the  bottom 
and  to  invite  the  periodical  shoals  of  fish  to  seek  their 
retreat  in  that  convenient  recess.  As  the  vicissitudes  of 
tides  are  scarcely  felt  in  those  seas,  the  constant  depth  of 
the  harbour  allows  goods  to  be  landed  on  the  quays  with- 
out the  assistance  of  boats ;  and  it  has  been  observed  that, 
in  many  places,  the  largest  vessels  may  rest  their  prows 
against  the  houses  while  their  sterns  are  floating  in  the 
water.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Lycus  to  that  of  the  har- 
bour this  arm  of  the  Bosphorus  is  more  than  seven  miles 
in  length.  The  entrance  is  about  five  hundred  yards 
broad,  and  a  strong  chain  could  be  occasionally  drawn 
across  it  to  guard  the  port  and  city  from  the  attack  of  an 
hostile  navy. 

Edward  Gibbon  :  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire, 

The  essays  are  the  work  of  a  rhetorician, — the  greatest, 
perhaps,  in  English  literature.  One  defect  in  that  litera- 
ture, as  compared  with  Latin  literatures,  has  been  a  lack 
of  rhetoric.  The  great  masters  of  English  prose,  Milton 
and  Burke,  appeal  to  the  imagination ;  their  language  is 
sensuous  and  adorned,  but  they  address  themselves  to  the 
intellect ;  they  charge  their  speech  with  thought ;  they 
are  careless  that  they  lay  burdens  upon  their  readers; 
they  are  indifferent  that  they  outstride  the  crowd.  The 
rhetorician — a  Cicero,  a  Bossuet — tries  to  spare  his  read- 
ers ;  he  wishes  to  be  always  thronged  by  the  multitude. 
So  it  is  with  Macaulay.  He  says  nothing  that  everybody 
cannot  comprehend,  and  at  once.  He  exerts  all  his  pow- 
ers to  give  the  readers  as  little  to  do  as  possible ;  he  drains 
his  memory  to  find  decorations  to  catch  their  eye  and  fix 
their  attention.  He  presents  everything  in  brilliant  im- 
ages. He  writes  to  the  eye  and  the  ear.  He  has  in  mind 
the  ordinary  Briton ;  he  does  not  write  for  a  sect  nor  for 


40  Paragraphs 

a  band  of  disciples.  He  is  always  the  orator  talking  to 
men  who  are  going  to  vote  at  the  end  of  his  speech.  He 
never  stops  with  a  suggestion;  he  never  pauses  with  a 
hint;  he  is  never  tentative,  never  is  rendered  august  by 
the  clouds  of  doubt. 

H.  D.  Sedgwick,  Jr.  :  The  Vitality  of  Macaulay, 
"  The  Atlantic  Monthly,"  August,  1899. 

5.  All  three  paragraphs  begin  with  simple  statements 
of  their  topics  and  proceed  to  enlarge  them.  In  the 
first  the  order  of  time  coincides  with  that  from  the  near 
to  the  remote;  the  effect  of  Lincoln's  nomination  with- 
out the  Wigwam  is  first  compared  to  that  already  de- 
scribed within  and  then  traced  from  the  nearest  point, 
on  the  roof,  to  the  crowd  below,  through  the  city,  and 
out  over  the  state.  In  the  second  paragraph  the  details 
follow  the  course  of  the  harbor  from  the  Lycus  to  the 
Bosphorus;  and  similarly  a  description  of  a  foot-ball 
field,  a  "  sky-scraper,''  or  a  view  from  a  mountain 
might  follow  the  order  of  things  in  space,  from  right  to 
left,  from  top  to  bottom,  or  from  north  to  south.  In 
the  third  paragraph  the  details  follow  a  logical  order  of 
thought  with  a  coherence  that  may  not  be  appreciated 
until  one  tries  to  change  the  order  of  sentences.  That 
will  furnish  a  good  test  for  the  structure  of  any  para- 
graph. A  paragraph  is  coherent  if  the  position  of  any 
sentence  cannot  be  changed  to  advantage. 

6.  The  sequence  of  ideas  must  not  only  be  natural  and 
distinct,  it  must  also  be  made  clear  to  the  reader.  He 
must  be  shown  the  road  which  he  is  following,  the 
points  at  which  he  turns,  and  the  progress  he  is  making 
toward  the  end.     In  long  compositions  these  directions 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit      41 

are  supplied  by  summaries,  transitional  paragraphs, 
and  connecting  sentences;  in  a  paragraph,  by  connect- 
ing words  and  phrases.  In  the  following  paragraph 
the  connectives  are  italicized. 

About  this  time  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  the  Spec- 
tator. I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them.  I  bought 
it,  read  it  over  and  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with 
it.  I  thought  the  writing  excellent,  and  wished  if  possi- 
ble to  imitate  it.  With  that  view  I  took  some  of  the 
papers,  and  making  short  hints  of  the  sentiments  in  each 
sentence,  laid  them  by  a  few  days,  and  then,  without 
looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  complete  the  papers  again 
by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at  length,  and  as 
fully  as  it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suitable 
words  that  should  occur  to  me.  Then  I  compared  my 
Spectator  with  the  original,  discovered  some  of  my  faults, 
and  corrected  them.  But  I  found  I  wanted  a  stock  of 
words,  or  a  readiness  in  recollecting  and  using  them, 
which  I  thought  I  should  have  acquired  before  that  time, 
if  I  had  gone  on  making  verses ;  since  the  continual  search 
for  words  of  the  same  import,  but  of  different  length  to 
suit  the  measure,  or  of  different  sound  for  the  rhyme, 
would  have  laid  me  under  a  constant  necessity  of  search- 
ing for  variety,  and  also  have  tended  to  fix  that  variety 
in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master  of  it.  Therefore  I  took 
some  of  the  tales  in  the  Spectator,  and  turned  them  into 
verse ;  and  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten 
the  prose,  turned  them  back  again. 

Benjamin  Franklin  :  Autobiography. 

"  About  this  time "  connects  the  whole  paragraph 
with  the  preceding  one;  "with  that  view,"  "then," 
"  but,"  and  "  therefore  "  connect  sentences  and  mark 
the  progress  of  thought  within  the  paragraph.  In  or- 
der to  indicate  the  numerous  and  complex  relations  be- 


42  Paragraphs 

tween  ideas,  our  language  supplies  a  great  many  con- 
nectives. Among  those  most  commonly  used  in  con- 
necting sentences  are:  and,  first,  moreover,  finally,  in 
conclusion,  in  the  same  way,  in  any  case,  hut,  yet, 
however,  nevertheless,  on  the  one  hand,  on  the  other 
hand,  and  yet,  on  the  contrary,  then,  hence,  accordingly, 
so,  thus,  therefore,  consequently,  now,  indeed,  in  fact, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  for  example,  in  general,  on  tlw 
whole,  at  all  events.  An  examination  of  a  few  pages 
of  good  English  will  show  how  serviceable  these  words 
are.  To  make  the  sequence  of  our  ideas  clear,  we  must 
never  be  at  a  loss  for  a  connective. 
7.  The  most  overused  of  these  connectives  are  and 
and  hut.  They  can  often  be  omitted  altogether,  or 
other  connectives  can  be  substituted  in  their  stead. 
They  are  properly  used  to  join  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses  that  are  closely  connected  in  meaning;  "  and  " 
indicating  close  connection  between  coordinate  expres- 
sions, "  but "  indicating  distinct  opposition.  They  may 
consequently  be  used  only  rarely  at  the  beginning  of  a 
paragraph,  for  two  paragraphs  are  not  often  intimately 
related  either  in  coordination  or  opposition.  At  the 
beginning  of  sentences  they  may  be  used,  but  only  when 
they  are  required  by  the  relations  of  the  ideas,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  "  but "  in  the  seventh  sentence  of  the 
paragraph  just  quoted  from  Franklin.  They  often  slip 
in  at  the  beginnings  of  sentences  because,  though  inex- 
act or  unnecessary,  they  seem  to  make  some  sort  of  con- 
nection ;  thus,  for  example,  every  sentence  in  this  para- 
graph might  begin  with  one  or  the  other  of  these 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit       43 

conjunctions  without  making  nonsense,  though  in  each 
case  the  connective  would  be  useless.  The  student 
should,  in  revising  his  themes,  omit  "  and  "  or  "  but " 
at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  whenever  possible. 

8.  A  word  may  be  added  in  regard  to  the  purpose  for 
which  connectives  are  used.  They  are  to  serve  as  di- 
rections to  the  reader,  and  they  must  not  mislead  or 
puzzle  him.  When  he  sees  "  however "  he  expects 
something  opposed  to  what  he  has  just  read ;  "  there- 
fore "  leads  him  to  expect  a  conclusion  drawn  from  pre- 
ceding reasons;  a  "  third  "  leads  him  to  look  back  for 
"  second  "  and  "  first."  Connectives  are  of  nO'  use  un- 
less the  sentences  are  actually  connected  in  thought,  and 
they  are  harmful  unless  they  are  used  with  discrimina- 
tion and  exactness.  They  need  not  be  very  numerous 
or  conspicuous,  but  they  should  be  used  whenever  they 
will  be  of  real  help  to  the  reader. 

9.  Besides  these  connectives,  sentences  are  often 
joined  by  pronouns  or  nouns.  The  adjective  pro- 
nouns, **this,"  "these,"  "such,"  "other,"  "another," 
"some,"  and  "same,"  are  very  frequently  used  either 
with  or  without  nouns.  In  the  second  paragraph  of 
this  chapter,  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  sentences  be- 
gin :  "  Such  paragraphs  " ;  "In  such  short  composi- 
tions"; "Moreover,  all  these  problems."  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  also  frequently  serve  as  connectives. 
Thus  in  the  paragraph  just  quoted  from  Franklin's 
Autobiography,  the  pronouns  "  them  "  and  "  it  "  in  the 
second  and  third  sentences  refer  back  to  "  the  Spec- 
tator "  in  the  first  sentence.     Moreover,  the  Coherence 


44  Paragraphs 

of  the  paragraph  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
subject  of  every  sentence  is  the  pronoun  "I."  In  the 
paragraph  quoted  in  this  chapter  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's 
essay  on  Macaulay,  each  of  the  last  seven  sentences  has 
for  its  subject  "  he,"  referring  back  to  "  Macaulay." 
Maintaining  one  subject  through  a  succession  of  sen- 
tences promotes  both  Unity  and  Coherence  and  also 
avoids  the  main  danger  in  using  pronouns  as  connec- 
tives—  the  danger  of  ambiguous  antecedents.  This 
danger  may  also  be  avoided  by  repeating  a  word,  usu- 
ally a  noun,  instead  of  using  a  pronoun  referring  to  it. 
So  "  danger  "  was  repeated  in  the  preceding  sentence ; 
and  so  in  the  selection  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  essay  the 
word  "  literature  "  is  repeated  in  the  second  sentence 
and  the  word  "  English  "  in  the  third,  both  of  which 
occur  in  the  opening  sentence.  If  carried  to  excess, 
such  repetition  is  monotonous,  but  it  is  the  most  unmis- 
takable way  of  connecting  two  sentences.  Pronouns 
must  be  used  carefully  in  order  to  avoid  ambiguous 
reference;  nouns  tie  sentences  firmly  together. 
10.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  suggests  that  especial 
attention  be  paid  to  the  opening  and  the  closing  sen- 
tences of  a  paragraph.  Owing  to  the  indention,  these 
are  the  sentences  most  likely  to  catch  the  reader's  eye, 
therefore  they  should  contain  important  matter.  The 
opening  sentence  should  introduce  the  subject.  If  the 
paragraph  is  a  part  of  a  composition,  some  words  must 
be  used  to  show  its  connection  with  the  preceding  para- 
graph ;  in  an  isolated  paragraph  the  first  sentence  may 
present  the  subject  without  preliminaries.     The  body 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit       45 

of  the  paragraph  can  be  occupied  with  details  necessary 
to  the  development  of  the  subject,  and  the  last  sentence 
should  give  the  conclusion.  This  conclusion  should  be 
presented  as  effectively  as  possible  because  it  has  the 
most  favorable  position  for  impressing  the  reader. 
The  opening  and  the  closing  sentences  will  thus  contain 
the  gist  of  the  paragraph. 

II.  The  following  are  the  first  and  last  sentences  of 
each  paragraph  in  this  chapter;  together  they  serve 
as  a  summary  of  its  contents. 

1.  A  composition  is  made  up  of  paragraphs,  but 
these  are  not  merely  divisions.  .  .  .  This  indention  is 
to  aid  the  reader's  eye. 

2.  The  importance  of  the  principles  of  composition 
in  their  application  to  the  paragraph  can  best  be  seen 
by  writing  themes  of  a  single  paragraph.  ...  In 
writing  single  paragraphs,  then,  we  have  one  of  the 
best  practical  means  of  realizing  the  value  of  the  three 
principles  as  aids  in  actually  expressing  our  ideas. 

3.  Writing  single  paragraphs  gives  especially  good 
training  in  the  principle  of  Unity.  .  .  .  Perhaps  the 
best  test  of  Unity  is  to  see  if  the  substance  of  the  para- 
graph can  be  put  into  a  single  sentence,  and  if  every- 
thing in  the  paragraph  can  be  properly  considered  a 
development  of  that  sentence. 

4.  The  principle  of  Coherence  requires  that  the 
ideas  in  a  paragraph  be  presented  in  a  natural  and  evi- 
dent sequence.  .  .  .  Note  the  logical  progress  of  ideas 
in  the  following  paragraphs;  in  the  first  the  details 
have  an  order  in  time,  but  in  the  second  and  third  the 


4-6  Paragraphs 

details  are  not  events  and  have  no  order  in  time,  yet 
their  relation  to  one  another  is  clear. 

5.  All  three  paragraphs  begin  with  simple  state- 
ments of  their  topics  and  proceed  to  enlarge  them.  .  .  . 
A  paragraph  is  coherent  if  the  position  of  any  sentence 
cannot  be  changed  to  advantage. 

6.  The  sequence  of  ideas  must  not  only  be  natural 
and  distinct,  it  must  also  be  made  clear  to  the  reader. 
.  .  .  To  make  the  sequence  of  our  ideas  clear,  we  must 
never  be  at  a  loss  for  a  connective. 

7.  The  most  overused  of  these  connectives  are  and 
and  but.  .  .  .  The  student  should,  in  revising  his 
themes,  omit  "  and  "  or  "  but "  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence  whenever  possible. 

8.  A  word  may  be  added  in  regard  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  connectives  are  used.  .  .  .  They  need 
not  be  very  numerous  or  conspicuous,  but  they  should 
be  used  whenever  they  will  be  of  real  help  to  the 
reader. 

9.  Besides  these  connectives,  sentences  are  often 
joined  by  pronouns  or  nouns.  .  .  .  Pronouns  must 
be  used  carefully  in  order  to  avoid  ambiguous  refer- 
ence ;  nouns  tie  sentences  firmly  together. 

10.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  suggests  that  es- 
pecial attention  be  paid  to  the  opening  and  the  closing 
sentences  of  a  paragraph.  .  .  .  The  opening  and  the 
closing  sentences  will  thus  contain  the  gist  of  the  para- 
graph. 

12.     In  each  case,  it  will  be  observed,  the  opening 
sentence  presents  the  subject  of  the  paragraph,  and 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit      47 

the  closing  sentence,  the  conclusion  or  predicate.  By 
combining  the  two  and  omitting  connecting  phrases, 
we  get  in  every  case  a  sentence  containing  the  sub- 
stance of  the  paragraph. 


EXERCISES 


1.  Themes  of  one  paragraph  are  now  to  be  written 
with  especial  attention  to  the  principles  of  composition. 
The  following  subjects  are  offered  as  suggestions ;  you 
may  choose  similar  ones  from  youf  own  experience. 

r.  An  Attempt  to  See  the  Sunrise. 

2.  A  Sunday  Walk. 

3.  Building  a  House. 

4.  My  Friend ; — a  character  sketch. 

5.  How  I  Study. 

6.  The  Pleasantest  Hour  at  School. 

7.  My  First  Fight. 

8.  Shooting  Rabbits. 

9.  Buying  a  Hat. 

10.     A  Teacher  (inprimary  or  grammar  school)  Whom 
I  Shall  Remember. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  connectives,  conjunctions,  ad- 
verbs, pronouns,  nouns,  between  sentences  in  the  first 
four  paragraphs  of  this  chapter. 

3.  Sum  up  the  gist  of  each  paragraph  in  the  chapter 
in  a  single  sentence. 

4.  Supply  the  necessary  connectives  and  combine  the 


48  Paragraphs 

sentences  formed  in  Exercise  3  into  a  well-constructed 
paragraph. 

5.  Criticize  the  following  theme.  How  many  para- 
graphs should  there  be?  Are  there  any  violations  of 
Unity?  Of  Coherence?  Are  there  any  mistakes  in 
grammar,  punctuation,  or  use  of  words?  In  the  form 
of  the  final  quotation  ?  Is  there  any  repetition  of  ideas  ? 
Can  you  suggest  any  changes  or  additions  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  theme  that  would  add  to  its  interest  ? 


THE   PRINCESS 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  Tennyson's  poems  to  me  is 
"  the  Princess." 

The  Princess  wishes  to  found  and  build  up  a  college, 
where  she  and  her  teachers  under  her,  might  teach  girls 
everything  that  men  are  taught. 

Only  girls  are  to  be  brought  here,  and  no  men  are  to 
be  admitted  to  their  halls.  The  aim  of  the  Princess 
in  founding  and  building  up  this  college  is  to  work  out 
woman's  freedom,  and  to  "  lift  womans  fallen  divinity 
upon  an  even  pedestal  with  man."  The  character  of  the 
Princess  is  on  the  whole  good.  She  is  "  crammed  with 
erring  pride,"  but  seems  to  be  kind  to  every  one  and 
tender-hearted. 

She  realized  her  weakness  and  finally  yields.  Her 
affections  toward  Psyche's  child  were  kind  and  her  good- 
heartedness  is  shown  when  she  opens  up  all  the  doors  of 
the  college  to  the  wounded. 

In  all  parts  of  the  poem,  she  seems  to  be  a  leader 
among  women,  and  well  liked  by  them. 

I  think  she  is  persistent  in  carrying  out  the  plans  which 
she  has  laid,  and  is  rather  courageous  in  that  respect. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  poem  Tennyson  says, 
"  Woman's  cause  is  man's ;  they  rise  or  sink  together, 
dwarf'd  or  godlike,  bond  or  free." 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit      49 

6.  The  following  paragraph  is,  perhaps,  a  fair  exam- 
ple of  the  conversation  of  an  uneducated  person.  Note 
its  violations  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 

This  announcement,  instead  of  embarrassing  Mrs. 
Miller,  seemed  to  relieve  her.  *'  I  suffer  from  the  liver," 
she  said.  "  I  think  it 's  the  climate ;  it 's  less  bracing 
than  Schenectady,  especially  in  the  winter  season.  I 
don't  know  whether  you  know  we  reside  at  Schenectady. 
I  was  saying  to  Daisy  that  I  certainly  had  n't  found  any 
one  like  Dr.  Davis,  and  I  did  n't  believe  I  should.  Oh, 
at  Schenectady  he  stands  first;  they  think  everything  of 
him.  He  has  so  much  to  do,  and  yet  there  was  nothing 
he  would  n't  do  for  me.  He  said  he  never  saw  anything 
like  my  dyspepsia,  but  he  was  bound  to  cure  it.  I  'm 
sure  there  was  nothing  he  wouldn't  try.  He  was  just 
going  to  try  something  new  when  we  came  off.  Mr. 
Miller  wanted  Daisy  to  see  Europe  for  herself.  But  I 
wrote  to  Mr.  Miller  that  it  seems  as  if  I  could  n't  get  on 
without  Dr.  Davis.  At  Schenectady  he  stands  at  the 
very  top ;  and  there  *s  a  great  deal  of  sickness  there,  too. 
It  affects  my  sleep." 

Henry  James:  Daisy  Miller. 

7.  Class-room  Exercise.  {Twenty-five  minutes.) 
Write  a  paragraph  on  one  of  the  following  topics : 

^1,    The  Character  of  Goldsmith.     Fix  on  four  or  five 
traits  before  you  begin  to  write. 

2.  One  Advantage  of  Studying  Science  in  the  High 

School.     Explain  and  illustrate. 

3.  The  Story  of  Tennyson's  "  Lady  Clare." 

4.  My  Favorite  Newspaper.     Give  several  reasons  for 

your  preference. 

5.  My  Favorite  Sport. 

6.  What  I  Would  Do  with  One  Hundred  Thousand 

Dollars. 

7.  One  of  My  Friends.     Describe  his  or  her  appear- 

ance ;  size,  clothes,  manners,  expression  of  face. 


50  Paragraphs 

8.  Rearrange  the  following  sentences  so  that  they 
will  form  a  coherent  and  emphatic  paragraph.  Begin 
by  determining  the  subject  of  the  paragraph;  second, 
find  the  sentence  that  states  this  subject  and  may  there- 
fore best  begin  the  paragraph ;  then,  arrange  the  other 
sentences  in  a  coherent  and  emphatic  order. 

1.  The  Spectator  is  a  gentleman  who,  after  passing  a 
studious  youth  at  the  University,  has  traveled  on  classic 
ground,  and  has  bestowed  much  attention  on  curious 
points  of  antiquity. 

2.  He  has,  on  his  return,  fixed  his  residence  in  Lon- 
don, and  has  observed  all  the  forms  of  life  which  are  to 
be  found  in  that  great  city;  has  daily  listened  to  the 
wits  of  Will's,  has  smoked  with  the  philosophers  of  the 
Grecian,  and  has  mingled  with  the  parsons  at  Child's, 
and  with  the  politicians  at  the  St.  James's. 

3.  But  an  insurmountable  bashfulness  prevents  him 
from  opening  his  mouth  except  in  a  small  circle  of  inti- 
mate friends. 

4.  The  Spectator  himself  was  conceived  and  drawn 
by  Addison;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  doubt  that  the  por- 
trait was  meant  to  be  in  some  features  a  likeness  of  the 
painter. 

5.  In  the  morning  he  often  listens  to  the  hum  of  the 
Exchange;  in  the  evening  his  face  is  constantly  to  be 
seen  in  the  pit  of  Drury  Lane  theatre. 

9.  Rearrange  the  following  sentences  so  that  they 
will  form  a  coherent  and  emphatic  paragraph.  The 
subject  is, —  Jackson's  Power  as  President.  What  sen- 
tence best  introduces  this  subject?  What  two  sen- 
tences are  closely  connected  in  thought?  Which  of 
these  comes  first  ?  What  sentence  makes  the  most  em- 
phatic ending? 


The  Paragraph  as  a  Unit       5  i 

1.  It  was  an  era  when  special  training  for  adminis- 
trative work  began  to  be  slighted,  when  education  be- 
yond the  rudiments  was  considered  unnecessary,  except 
in  the  three  professions,  when  the  practical  man  was 
apotheosized,  and  the  bookish  man  despised. 

2.  Jackson  was  a  strong  Executive,  and  placed  in  his 
Cabinet  men  who  would  do  his  will,  and  who,  from  his 
point  of  view,  were  good  advisers,  since  they  counseled 
him  to  pursue  the  course  he  had  marked  out  for  himself. 

3.  The  brilliant  three,  Webster,  Clay,  and  Calhoun, 
were  unable  to  prevail  against  his  power. 

4.  Jackson,  uneducated  and  with  little  experience  in 
civil  life,  showed  what  power  might  be  exercised  by  an 
arbitrary,  unreasonable  man  who  had  the  people  at  his 
back. 

5.  Comparing  his  Cabinet  officers  with  those  of  the 
Presidents  preceding  him,  one  realizes  that  another  plan 
of  governing  was  set  on  foot,  based  on  the  theory  that 
any  American  citizen  is  fit  for  any  position  to  which  he  is 
called. 

II 

10.  In  themes  assigned  to  you  for  criticism,  how  is 
the  topic  developed  into  a  paragraph?  by  means  of 
details,  explanation,  illustration,  examples,  compari- 
sons, proofs?  Would  the  paragraph  be  improved  by 
the  additional  use  of  any  of  these  means  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH 

1.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  seen  that  the  best 
way  to  plan  a  paragraph  is  to  sum  up  its  substance  in  a 
single  sentence.  We  have  also  seen  how  this  topic- 
sentence  may  be  developed  in  accord  with  the  princi- 
ples of  composition.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  consider 
a  number  of  specific  ways  in  which  this  development 
may  be  managed. 

2.  First,  let  us  make  sure  of  what  we  mean  by  a  topic- 
sentence.  In  paragraph  3  of  Chapter  5,  we  saw  that 
the  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph  frequently  contains 
the  subject  or  topic;  it  is  then  the  topic-sentence. 
Thus  in  each  of  the  three  selections  quoted  on  pages  38 
and  39,  the  first  sentence  contains  the  topic  of  the  para- 
graph :  "  Without  the  scene  was  repeated."  "  The  har- 
bour of  Constantinople,  which  may  be  considered  as 
an  arm  of  the  Bosphorus,  obtained,  in  a  very  remote 
period,  the  denomination  of  the  Golden  Horn/'  "  The 
essays  are  the  work  of  a  rhetorician  —  the  greatest,  per- 
haps, in  English  literature."  Thus  in  the  present  para- 
graph the  opening  sentence  contains  the  topic,  "  what 
we  mean  by  a  topic-sentence."     Sometimes,  however, 

52 


The  Development  53 

connecting  words  are  necessary  to  indicate  the  relation 
of  a  paragraph  to  the  preceding.  These  may  amount 
even  to  a  whole  sentence  and  so  thrust  the  topic-sen- 
tence forward  into  second  place.  The  last  sentence  of 
a  paragraph  should  often  contain  the  conclusion,  and 
a  part  or  even  the  whole  of  the  topic  may  be  reserved 
for  the  last  place.  The  topic  of  a  paragraph,  in  fact, 
may  frequently  not  be  stated  at  all,  but  only  implied  in 
the  paragraph  itself.  The  paragraph  has  sufficient 
Unity  if  its  substance  can  be  summed  up  in  a  single 
sentence,  whether  expressed  or  implied.  In  well-made 
paragraphs,  however,  the  opening  sentence  usually  pre- 
sents the  topic. 

3'  The  following  paragraphs  furnish  further  iexam- 
ples  of  topic-sentences  and  also  illustrate  what  we  are 
concerned  in  discovering  in  this  chapter,  how  a  topic- 
sentence  is  developed  into  a  paragraph  by  various 
methods  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  The 
topic-sentences  are  printed  in  italics. 


I.      DEFINITION,   REPETITION,  AND  EXPLANATION 

The  proposition  is  peace.  Not  peace  through  the  me- 
dium of  war;  not  peace  to  be  hunted  through  the  laby- 
rinth of  intricate  and  endless  negotiations;  not  peace  to 
rise  out  of  universal  discord  fomented  from  principle  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire;  not  peace  to  depend  on  the  juri- 
dicial  determination  of  perplexing  questions,  or  the  pre- 
cise marking  the  shadowy  boundaries  of  a  complex  gov- 
ernment. It  is  simple  peace,  sought  in  its  natural  course 
and  in  its  ordinary  haunts.  It  is  peace  sought  in  the 
principles  of  peace,  and  laid  in  principles  purely  pacific. 
I  propose,  by  removing  the  ground  of  difference,  and  by 


54  Preliminaries 

restoring  the  former  unsuspecting  confidence  of  the  colo- 
nies in  the  mother  country,  to  give  permanent  satisfac- 
tion to  your  people;  and  (far  from  a  scheme  of  ruling 
by  discord,)  to  reconcile  them  to  each  other  in  the  same 
act  and  by  the  bond  of  the  very  same  interest  which  rec- 
onciles them  to  the  British  government. 

Edmund  Burke:  Speech  on  Conciliation  with 
America. 

4.  In  this  paragraph  the  purpose  of  the  v^riter  is  to 
explain  and  enforce  the  topic  stated  in  the  first  sen- 
tence. After  reading  that,  one  is  inclined  to  ask, 
"  what  kind  of  peace  ?  how  is  it  to  be  secured  ?  "  The 
second  sentence  proceeds  to  tell  what  kind  of  peace  it 
is  not;  the  third  defines  peace  briefly;  the  fourth,  a 
little  more  at  length;  and  the  last  sentence  explains 
more  definitely  the  kind  of  peace  proposed.  Not  until 
this  last  sentence,  in  fact,  is  the  exact  nature  of  this 
peace  determined.  In  each  of  these  last  three  sentences 
there  is  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  but  with  a  new 
idea  added  each  time.  The  paragraph  follows  the  prin- 
ciples perfectly  and  develops  the  topic-sentence  by 
means  of  definition,  repetition,  and  explanation. 


II.      DETAILS  AND  PARTICULARS 

Worms  prepare  the  ground  in  an  excellent  manner  for 
the  growth  of  fibrous-rooted  plants  and  for  seedlings  of 
all  kinds.  They  periodically  expose  the  mould  to  the 
air,  and  sift  it  so  that  no  stones  larger  than  the  particles 
which  they  can  swallow  are  left  in  it.  They  mingle  the 
whole  intimately  together,  like  a  gardener  who  prepares 
fine  soil  for  his  choicest  plants.  In  this  state  it  is  well 
fitted  to  retain  moisture  and  to  absorb  all  soluble  sub- 


The  Development  55 

stances,  as  well  as  for  the  process  of  nitrification.  The 
bones  of  dead  animals,  the  harder  parts  of  insects,  the 
shells  of  land  mollusks,  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  are  before  long 
all  buried  beneath  the  accumulated  castings  of  worms,  and 
are  thus  brought  in  a  more  or  less  decayed  state  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants.  Worms  likewise  drag  an  in- 
finite number  of  dead  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants  into 
their  burrows,  partly  for  the  sake  of  plugging  them  up 
and  partly  as  food. 

Charles  Darwin  :  The  Formation  of  Vegetable 
Mould. 

The  tremendous  sea  itself,  when  I  could  find  sufficient 
pause  to  look  at  it,  in  the  agitation  of  the  blinding  wind, 
the  flying  stones  and  sand,  and  the  awful  noise,  con- 
founded me.  As  the  high  watery  walls  came  rolling  in, 
and,  at  their  highest,  tumbled  into  surf,  they  looked  as 
if  the  least  would  engulf  the  town.  As  the  receding  wave 
swept  back  with  a  hoarse  roar,  it  seemed  to  scoop  out 
deep  caves  in  the  beach,  as  if  its  purpose  were  to  under- 
mine the  earth.  When  some  white-headed  billows  thun- 
dered on,  and  dashed  themselves  to  pieces  before  they 
reached  the  land,  every  fragment  of  the  late  whole 
seemed  possessed  by  the  full  might  of  its  wrath,  rushing 
to  be  gathered  to  the  composition  of  another  monster. 
Undulating  hills  were  changed  to  valleys,  undulating 
valleys  (with  a  solitary  storm-bird  sometimes  skimming 
through  them)  were  lifted  up  to  hills;  masses  of  water 
shivered  and  shook  the  beach  with  a  booming  sound; 
every  shape  tumultuously  rolled  on,  as  soon  as  made,  to 
change  its  shape  and  place,  and  beat  another  shape  and 
place  away ;  the  ideal  shore  on  the  horizon,  with  its  tow- 
ers and  buildings,  rose  and  fell ;  the  clouds  flew  fast  and 
thick;  I  seemed  to  see  a  rending  and  upheaving  of  all 
nature. 

Charles  Dickens:  David  Copperiield. 

5»  In  these  paragraphs  the  topic-sentences  are  ampli- 
fied by  means  of  details  and  particulars.     We  are  told 


5  6  Paragraphs 

of  various  particular  ways  by  which  the  worms  pre- 
pare the  ground  for  seeds,  and  of  the  details  that  united 
to  make  the  tremendous  sea  so  confounding  to  the 
spectator.  The  paragraph  from  Darwin  ends  with  an 
important  detail  which  is  the  subject  of  his  next  para- 
graph ;  the  paragraph  from  Dickens  ends  with  a  clause 
that  sums  up  the  effect  of  the  various  details,  and  thus 
supplements  the  general  impression  given  in  the  open- 
ing sentence.  This  form  of  development,  the  amplifi- 
cation of  a  general  statement  by  specific  details,  is  very 
common  and  is  applicable,  as  in  the  two  paragraphs 
quoted,  to  widely  different  topics. 

III.      EXAMPLES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Boys  are  always  more  or  less  inaccurate,  and  too  many, 
or  rather  the  majority  remain  boys  all  their  lives. 
When,  for  instance,  I  hear  speakers  at  public  meetings 
declaiming  about  "  large  and  enlightened  views,"  or 
about  "  freedom  of  conscience  "  or  about  "  the  Gospel,'* 
or  any  other  popular  subject  of  the  day,  I  am  far  from 
denying  that  some  among  them  know  what  they  are  talk- 
ing about,  but  it  would  be  satisfactory,  in  a  particular 
case,  to  be  sure  of  the  fact ;  for  it  seems  to  me  that  these 
household  words  may  stand  in  a  man's  mind  for  a  some- 
thing or  other,  very  glorious  indeed,  but  very  misty, 
pretty  much  like  the  idea  of  "  civilization  "  which  floats 
before  the  mental  vision  of  a  Turk, — that  is,  if,  when  he 
interrupts  his  smoking  to  utter  the  word,  he  condescends 
to  reflect  whether  it  has  any  meaning  at  all.  Again,  a 
critic  in  a  periodical  dashes  off,  perhaps,  his  praises  of  a 
new  work,  as  "  talented,  original,  replete  with  intense 
interest,  irresistible  in  argument,  and  in  the  best  sense 
of  the  word,  a  very  readable  book ;  " — can  we  really  be- 
lieve that  he  cares  to  attach  any  definite  sense  to  the 
words  of  which  he  is  so  lavish?  nay,  that,  if  he  had  a 


The  Development  57 

habit  of  attaching  sense  to  them,  he  could  ever  bring  him- 
self to  so  prodigal  and  wholesale  an  expenditure  of  them? 
Cardinal  Newman:  Lectures  on 
University  Subjects. 

6.  In  this  paragraph  a  statement  is  reinforced  by  a 
number  of  examples  and  illustrations.  The  topic-sen- 
tence of  the  first  paragraph  under  II  might  have  been 
amplified  in  a  similar  manner.  Darwin  might  have 
illustrated  the  way  the  worms  prepare  the  ground  by 
an  example  of  some  worm  he  had  studied,  instead  of  by 
giving  a  number  of  particular  ways  in  which  all  worms 
work.  This  method  of  illustration  is  used  constantly 
in  this  book;  this  chapter,  for  instance,  seeks  by  this 
method  of  examples  and  illustrations  to  explain  how 
to  develop  a  paragraph. 

IV.      COMPARISON  AND  CONTRAST 

But  that  which  chiefly  distinguishes  Addison  from 
Szvift,  from  Voltaire,  from  almost  all  the  other  great 
masters  of  ridicule,  is  the  grace,  the  nobleness,  the  moral 
purity,  which  we  find  even  in  his  merriment.  Severity, 
gradually  hardening  and  darkening  into  misanthropy, 
characterizes  the  work  of  Swift.  The  nature  of  Voltaire 
was,  indeed,  not  inhuman;  but  he  venerated  nothing. 
Neither  in  the  masterpieces  of  art  nor  in  the  purest  ex- 
amples of  virtue,  neither  in  the  Great  First  Cause  nor  in 
the  awful  enigma  of  the  grave,  could  he  see  anything 
but  subjects  for  drollery.  The  more  solemn  and  august 
the  theme,  the  more  monkey-like  was  his  grimacing  and 
chattering.  The  mirth  of  Swift  is  the  mirth  of  Mephis- 
topheles ;  the  mirth  of  Voltaire  is  the  mirth  of  Puck.  If, 
as  Soame  Jenyns  oddly  imagined,  a  portion  of  the  happi- 
ness of  Seraphim  and  just  men  made  perfect  be  derived 
from  an  exquisite  perception  of  the  ludicrous,  their  mirth 


5  8  Paragraphs 

must  surely  be  none  other  than  the  mirth  of  Addison ;  a 
mirth  consistent  with  tender  compassion  for  all  that  is 
frail,  and  with  profound  reverence  for  all  that  is  sublime. 
Nothing  great,  nothing  amiable,  no  moral  duty,  no  doc- 
trine of  natural  or  revealed  religion  has  ever  been  asso- 
ciated by  Addison  with  any  degrading  idea.  His  hu- 
manity is  without  a  parallel  in  literary  history.  The 
highest  proof  of  virtue  is  to  possess  boundless  power  with- 
out abusing  it.  No  kind  of  power  is  more  formidable 
than  the  power  of  making  men  ridiculous ;  and  that  power 
Addison  possessed  in  boundless  measure.  How  grossly 
that  power  was  abused  by  Swift  and  by  Voltaire  is  well 
known.  But  of  Addison  it  may  be  confidently  affirmed 
that  he  has  blackened  no  man's  character,  nay,  that  it 
would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  find  in  all  the 
volumes  which  he  has  left  us  a  single  taunt  which  can 
be  called  ungenerous  or  unkind.  Yet  he  had  detractors, 
whose  malignity  might  have  seemed  to  justify  as  terrible 
a  revenge  as  that  which  men,  not  superior  to  him  in 
genius,  wreaked  on  Bettesworth  and  on  Franc  de  Pom- 
pignan.  He  was  a  politician;  he  was  the  best  writer  of 
his  party ;  he  lived  in  times  of  fierce  excitement,  in  times 
when  persons  of  high  character  and  station  stooped  to 
scurrility  such  as  is  now  practised  only  by  the  basest 
of  mankind.  Yet  no  provocation  and  no  example  could 
induce  him  to  return  railing  for  railing. 

Thomas  B.  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Addison. 

7.  Here  the  method  is  by  means  of  contrast  and  com- 
parison. Some  examples  are  introduced  and  there  is 
some  reinforcement  of  ideas  by  repetition,  but  the 
main  topic,  "  the  grace,  the  nobleness,  the  moral  pur- 
ity "  of  Addison's  merriment,  is  developed  by  con- 
trasting his  humor  with  that  of  Swift  and  Voltaire. 
A  development  by  comparison  might  indicate  like- 
nesses instead  of  contrasts. 


The  Development  59 


V.      PROOF 

Still,  we  do  not  think  that  the  blame  of  Burns's  failure 
lies  chiefly  with  the  world.  The  world,  it  seems  to  us, 
treated  him  with  more  rather  than  less  kindness  than  it 
usually  shows  to  such  men.  It  has  ever,  we  fear,  shown 
but  small  favor  to  its  Teachers:  hunger  and  nakedness, 
perils  and  revilings,  the  prison,  the  cross,  the  poison- 
chalice  have,  in  most  times  and  countries,  been  the 
market-price  it  has  offered  for  Wisdom,  the  welcome 
with  which  it  has  greeted  those  who  have  come  to  en- 
lighten and  purify  it.  Homer  and  Socrates,  and  the 
Christian  Apostles,  belong  to  old  days ;  but  the  world's 
Martyrology  was  not  completed  with  these.  Roger 
Bacon  and  Galileo  languish  in  priestly  dungeons ;  Tasso 
pines  in  the  cell  of  a  mad-house;  Camoens  dies  begging 
on  the  streets  of  Lisbon.  So  neglected,  so  *  persecuted 
they  the  Prophets,'  not  in  Judea  only,  but  in  all  places 
where  men  have  been.  We  reckon  that  every  poet  of 
Burns's  order  is,  or  should  be,  a  prophet  and  teacher  to 
his  age;  that  he  has  no  right  to  expect  great  kindness 
from  it,  but  rather  is  bound  to  do  it  great  kindness ;  that 
Burns,  in  particular,  experienced  £ully  the  usual  propor- 
tion of  the  world's  goodness;  and  that  the  blame  of  his 
failure,  as  we  have  said,  lies  not  chiefly  with  the  world. 

Carlyle:  Essay  on  Burns. 

8.  In  this  paragraph  the  development  is  by  means  of 
proofs  presented  in  support  of  a  proposition.  The 
structure  of  the  paragraph  is  so  clear  that  it  can  be  indi- 
cated in  the  form  of  a  brief  for  an  argument: 


Proposition.     We  do  not  think  that  the  blame  of  Burns's 
failure  lies  chiefly  with  the  world.     (Topic  sentence.) 
Proof,     i.     For  the  world  treated  him  with  more  kind- 
ness than  it  usually  shows  such  men. 


6o  Paragraphs 

A.    For  it  has  ever  shown  small  favor 
to  teachers  and  prophets, 
(a)     For,    note    the    cases    of 
Homer,  Socrates,  Bacon,  Gali- 
leo, Tasso. 
2.    For  every  poet  of  Burns's  order  should  be 
independent  of  the  favor  of  the  world. 
Conclusion.     Therefore,  the  blame  of  his  failure  lies 
not  chiefly  with  the  world. 

9.  In  many  descriptive  and  narrative  paragraphs  the 
method  of  development  is  different  from  any  of  these. 
A  number  of  details  about  an  object  or  scene  may  fol- 
low their  arrangement  in  space,  as  in  the  selection  from 
Gibbon  in  Chapter  5,  or  a  number  of  events  may  be 
set  forth  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence  in  time,  as  in 
the  following  paragraph : 

VI.      NARRATIVE 

My  Lord  Viscount  was  put  to  bed,  and  his  wound 
looked  to  by  the  surgeon,  who  seemed  both  kind  and 
skilful.  When  he  had  looked  to  my  Lord,  he  bandaged 
up  Harry  Esmond's  hand  (who  from  loss  of  blood,  had 
fainted  too,  in  the  house,  and  may  have  been  some  time 
unconscious)  ;  and  when  the  young  man  came  to  himself, 
you  may  be  sure  he  eagerly  asked  what  news  there  was  of 
his  dear  patron ;  on  which  the  surgeon  carried  him  to  the 
room  where  the  Lord  Castlewood  lay;  who  had  already 
sent  for  a  priest;  and  desired  earnestly,  they  said,  to 
speak  with  his  kinsman.  He  was  lying  on  a  bed,  very 
pale  and  ghastly,  with  that  fixed,  fatal  look  in  his  eyes, 
which  betokens  death ;  and  faintly  beckoning  all  the 
other  persons  away  from  him  with  his  hand,  and  crying 
out  "  Only  Harry  Esmond,"  the  hand  fell  powerless 
down  on  the  coverlet,  as  Harry  came  forward,  and  knelt 
down  and  kissed  it. 

William  M,  Thackeray:  Henry  Esmond, 


The  Development  6i 

10.  Here,  although  there  is  no  topic-sentence,  we  can 
state  the  contents  of  the  paragraph  briefly,  Henry  Es- 
mond goes  to  the  dying  Lord  Castlewood.  Note  also 
that  the  last  clause  in  the  paragraph  describes  the  event 
to  which  the  other  clauses  and  sentences  lead.  This  is 
a  common  method  in  narrative  paragraphs :  the  group- 
ing of  events,  closely  connected  in  time,  about  some 
particular  event,  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  topic  of 
the  paragraph  and  is  often  reserved  until  the  last 
sentence. 

11.  In  these  selections  we  have  examined  only  a  few 
of  the  many  ways  in  which  a  topic-sentence  may  be 
developed.  The  topic-sentence  may  present  a  cause, 
and  the  rest  of  the  sentences  the  effects  of  this  cause ; 
or  the  topic-sentence  may  present  an  effect,  and  the 
developing  sentences  the  causes.  The  development 
may  consist  of  modifications  and  limitations  of  the 
topic,  or  of  answers  to  criticisms  of  a  proposition,  or 
of  impressions  received  from  the  object  named  in  the 
opening  sentence.  It  is  impossible  to  analyze  all  the 
methods  of  developing  an  idea  into  a  composition  of 
even  a  few  hundred  words.  Furthermore,  most  para- 
graphs use  more  than  one  method  of  development.  A 
single  paragraph  might,  indeed,  employ  all  those  that 
have  been  enumerated  in  this  chapter.  It  should  be 
observed  that  a  writer's  choice  of  methods  of  develop- 
ment will  depend  primarily  on  his  purpose.  If  his  pur- 
pose be  to  tell  a  story,  the  chronological  grouping  of 
events  is  the  most  natural;  if  he  wishes  to  present  an 
argument,  the  method  of  proofs.    But  in  telling  a  story 


^ 


6  2  Paragraphs 

he  is  likely  to  have  an  occasion  for  details  and  par- 
ticulars, and  if  his  argument  is  to  be  convincing,  he  will 
often  need  to  preface  his  proofs  with  definition  and 
explanation.  The  writer  may  choose  from  a  large 
number  of  methods  those  that  best  suit  his  purpose. 
12.  He  must  remember,  however,  that  a  paragraph 
should  be  the  development  of  a  single  idea,  such  as 
can  be  put  into  a  single  sentence.  The  sentence  con- 
taining this  idea  is  called  the  topic-sentence  and  may 
form  a  part  of  the  paragraph.  Usually  it  should  be  the 
first  sentence,  and  the  remaining  sentences  may  develop 
this  topic-sentence  in  various  ways.  Some  of  the  most 
common  and  serviceable  methods  of  development  are : 
I.  Definition,  Repetition,  Explanation.  11.  Details 
and  Particulars.  III.  Examples,  Illustrations.  IV. 
Comparisons  and  Contrasts.  V.  Proofs.  VI.  Chron- 
ological Grouping  of  Events. 

EXERCISES 


1.  Examine  six  paragraphs  in  one  of  Macaulay's  Es- 
says. What  methods  of  development  are  used  in  each? 
From  the  reports  on  this  exercise  by  various  members 
of  the  class,  decide  what  seem  to  be  Macaulay's  favor- 
ite methods. 

2.  Develop  one  topic-sentence  from  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing groups  into  a  paragraph,  according  to  the 
method  assigned.     Or  you  may  substitute  a  topic-sen- 


The  Development  63 

tence   of   your  own   devising,    if   approved   by   your 
teacher. 


I.      BY   DEFINITION    AND    EXPLANATION 

The  meaning  of  the  word  "  success  "  is  frequently  mis- 
understood. 

Elective  courses  in  the  high  school  are  beneficial. 

"  The  triumph  of  Modern  Art  in  Writing  is  manifested 
in  the  structure  of  the  paragraph." 

II.       BY   DETAILS   AND   PARTICULARS 

Greenfield  is  a  thriving  Indiana  town. 

It  is  advisable  to  plan  your  studying  for  the  week. 

How  much  a  penny  means  to  a  small  boy ! 

III.       BY    EXAMPLE    AND    ILLUSTRATION 

Some  people  appear  to  be  much  busier  than  they  are. 

It  is  surprising  how  much  we  can  learn  by  careful  atten- 
tion during  a  recitation  of  the  class. 

The  true  character  of  a  man  is  sometimes  indicated  by 
his  conduct  in  the  street-car. 

IV.       BY  COMPARISON  AND  CONTRAST 

There  are  immigrants  whom  we  do  want  and  immi- 
grants whom  we  do  not  want. 

Greater  advantage  is  derived  from  four  years  in  college 
than  from  four  years  in  business. 

V.      BY  PROOFS 

Does  Macbeth's  hesitation  arise  from  cowardice  or  from 
generous  feeling? 

Shylock  is  surely  one  of  Shakespeare's  greatest  char- 
acters. 

Foot-ball  afifords  good  mental  discipline. 

The  large  appropriation  for  new  ships  for  our  navy  has 
received  unwarranted  criticism. 


64  Paragraphs 


VI.      BY  NARRATIVE 
The  topic-sentence  may  be  altered,  placed  at  the  beginning  or 
end,  or  omitted  in  the  completed  theme. 

Yesterday  I  went  fishing. 

*'  Childe  Roland  to  the  dark  tower  came." 

The  ball  was  sailing  over  the  left  fielder's  head,  and  the 
game  was  won. 

One  of  my  happiest  recollections  of  childhood  is  of  vis- 
its to  grandmother's. 

3.  Develop  one  of  the  following  topics  by  any  method 
you  choose. 

The  Observance  of  Sunday. 

How  I  Spent  a  Rainy  Day. 

Differences  between  High  School  and  Grammar  School. 

A  Comparison  of  Milton's  "  L'AUegro  "  and  "  II  Pen- 

seroso." 
What  Shakespeare  Means  by  "  the  Quality  of  Mercy." 
A  Chemical  Experiment. 
English  Sparrows. 
Villains  in  Novels. 

4.  Hand  in  a  topic-sentence  of  your  own  choice,  with 
a  statement  of  the  methods  you  intend  to  use  in  its  de- 
velopment. 

5-  Criticize  the  themes  read  in  the  class,  following 
this  outline: 

1.  The  topic-sentence. 

2.  The  methods  of  development. 

3.  Unity. 

4.  Coherence. 

5.  Emphasis. 


The  Development  65 

6.  Analyze  the  following  paragraphs  according  to  the 
outline  given  in  Exercise  5 : 

1.  The  young  lady  of  1837  has  been  to  a  fashionable 
school ;  she  has  learned  accomplishments,  deportment,  and 
dress.  She  is  full  of  sentiment;  there  was  an  amazing 
amount  of  sentiment  in  the  air  about  that  time ;  she  loves 
to  talk  and  read  about  gallant  knights,  crusaders,  and 
troubadours ;  she  gently  touches  the  guitar ;  her  sentiment, 
or  her  little  affectation,  has  touched  her  with  a  graceful 
melancholy,  a  becoming  stoop,  a  sweet  pensiveness.  She 
loves  the  aristocracy,  even  though  her  home  is  in  that 
part  of  London  called  Bloomsbury,  whither  the  belted 
earl  cometh  not,  even  though  her  papa  goes  into  the  city ; 
she  reads  a  good  deal  of  poetry,  especially  those  poems 
which  deal  with  the  affections,  of  which  there  are  many 
at  this  time.  On  Sunday  she  goes  to  church  religiously, 
and  pensively,  followed  by  a  footman  carrying  her  prayer- 
book  and  a  long  stick ;  she  can  play  on  the  guitar  and  the 
piano  a  few  easy  pieces  which  she  has  learned.  She  knows 
a  few  words  of  French,  which  she  produces  at  frequent 
intervals ;  as  to  history,  geography,  science,  the  condition 
of  the  people,  her  mind  is  an  entire  blank ;  she  knows  no- 
thing of  these  things.  Her  conversation  is  commonplace, 
as  her  ideas  are  limited;  she  cannot  reason  on  any  sub- 
ject whatever  because  of  her  ignorance,  or,  as  she  herself 
would  say,  because  she  is  a  woman. 

Sir  Walter  Besant. 

2,  The  appearance  of  Rip,  with  his  long  grizzled  beard, 
his  rusty  fowling-piece,  his  uncouth  dress,  and  an  army 
of  women  and  children  at  his  heels,  soon  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  tavern-politicians.  They  crowded  round 
him,  eyeing  him  from  head  to  foot  with  great  curiosity. 
The  orator  bustled  up  to  him,  and,  drawing  him  partly 
aside,  inquired  "  On  which  side  he  voted  ?  "  Rip  stared 
in  vacant  stupidity.  Another  short  but  busy  little  fellow 
pulled  him  by  the  arm,  and,  rising  on  tiptoe,  inquired  in 


66  Paragraphs 

his  ear,  "  Whether  he  was  Federal  or  Democrat?"  Rip 
was  equally  at  a  loss  to  comprehend  the  question;  when 
a  knowing,  self-important  old  gentleman,  in  a  sharp 
cocked  hat,  made  his  way  through  the  crowd,  putting 
them  to  right  and  left  with  his  elbows  as  he  passed,  and 
planting  himself  before  Van  Winkle,  with  one  arm 
akimbo,  the  other  resting  on  his  cane,  his  keen  eyes  and 
sharp  hat  penetrating,  as  it  were,  into  his  very  soul,  de- 
manded in  an  austere  tone,  ''  What  brought  him  to  the 
election  with  a  gun  on  his  shoulder,  and  a  mob  at  his 
heels ;  and  whether  he  meant  to  breed  a  riot  in  the  vil- 
lage?" 

Washington  Irving:  Rip  Van  Winkle. 

3.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  again  allude  to  President 
Lincoln  and  the  Secretary  of  War,  Mr.  Stanton,  who  were 
the  great,  conspicuous  figures  in  the  executive  branch  of 
the  government.  There  is  no  great  difference  of  opinion 
now,  in  the  public  mind,  as  to  the  characteristics  of  the 
President.  With  Mr.  Stanton  the  case  is  different.  They 
were  the  very  opposites  of  each  other  in  almost  every  par- 
ticular, except  that  each  possessed  great  ability.  Mr.  Lin- 
coln gained  influence  over  men  by  making  them  feel  that 
it  was  a  pleasure  to  serve  him.  He  preferred  yielding 
his  own  wish  to  gratify  others,  rather  than  to  insist  upon 
having  his  own  way.  It  distressed  him  to  disappoint 
others.  In  matters  of  public  duty,  however,  he  had  what 
he  wished,  but  in  the  least  offensive  way.  Mr.  Stanton 
never  questioned  his  own  authority  to  command,  unless 
resisted.  He  cared  nothing  for  the  feelings  of  others.  In 
fact,  it  seemed  pleasanter  to  him  to  disappoint  than  to 
gratify.  He  felt  no  hesitation  in  assuming  the  functions 
of  the  executive,  or  in  acting  without  advising  with  him. 
If  his  act  was  not  sustained,  he  would  change  it — if  he  saw 
the  matter  would  be  followed  up  until  he  did  so. 

U.  S.  Grant:  Personal  Memoirs. 

4.  The  Grand  Master  was  a  man  advanced  in  age,  as 
was  testified  by  his  long  grey  beard,  and  the  shaggy  grey 


The  Development  67 


eyebrows,  overhanging  eyes,  of  which,  however,  years  had 
been  unable  to  quench  the  fire.  A  formidable  warrior,  his 
thin  and  severe  features  retained  the  soldier's  fierceness  of 
expression ;  an  ascetic  bigot,  they  were  no  less  marked  by 
the  emaciation  of  abstinence,  and  the  spiritual  pride  of  the 
self-satisfied  devotee.  Yet  with  these  severer  traits  of 
physiognomy  there  was  mixed  somewhat  striking  and  no- 
ble, arising,  doubtless,  from  the  great  part  which  his  high 
office  called  upon  him  to  act  among  monarchs  and  princes, 
and  from  the  habitual  exercise  of  supreme  authority  over 
the  valiant  and  high-born  knights,  who  were  united  by 
the  rules  of  the  Order.  His  stature  was  tall,  and  his  gait, 
undepressed  by  age  and  toil,  was  erect  and  stately.  His 
white  mantle  was  shaped  with  severe  regularity,  according 
to  the  rule  of  Saint  Bernard  himself,  being  composed  of 
what  was  then  called  Burrel  cloth,  exactly  fitted  to  the 
size  of  the  wearer,  and  bearing  on  the  left  shoulder  the 
octangular  cross  peculiar  to  the  Order,  formed  of  red 
cloth.  No  vair  or  ermine  decked  his  garment;  but  in 
respect  of  his  age,  the  Grand  Master,  as  permitted  by  the 
rules,  wore  his  doublet  lined  and  trimmed  with  the  softest 
lambskin,  dressed  with  the  wool  outwards,  which  was  the 
nearest  approach  he  could  regularly  make  to  the  use  of 
fur,  then  the  greatest  luxury  of  dress.  In  his  hand  he 
bore  that  singular  abacus,  or  staff  of  office,  with  which 
Templars  are  usually  represented,  having  at  the  upper 
end  a  round  plate,  on  which  was  engraved  the  cross  of 
the  Order,  inscribed  within  a  circle  or  orle,  as  heralds  term 
it.  His  companion,  who  attended  on  this  great  personage, 
had  nearly  the  same  dress  in  all  respects,  but  his  extreme 
deference  towards  his  superior  showed  that  no  other 
equality  subsisted  between  them.  The  Preceptor,  for  such 
he  was  in  rank,  walked  not  in  a  line  with  the  Grand  Mas- 
ter, but  just  so  far  behind  that  Beaumanoir  could  speak 
to  him  without  turning  round  his  head. 

Sir  Walter  Scott:  Ivanhoe. 


68  Paragraphs 


II 

7.  Class-room  Exercise.  (Ten  minutes  for  each.) 
Write  a  theme  on,  "  What  I  have  Learned  about  Para- 
graphs " ;  on,  "  What  I  Want  to  Learn." 

8.  Of  the  subjects  for  themes  given  in  the  exercises 
of  this  chapter,  which  seem  to  you  suited  for  descrip- 
tion? which  for  narrative,  for  exposition,  for  argu- 
ment? How  would  you  define  each  of  these  kinds  of 
writing? 

9.  Develop  one  of  the  following  topic-sentences  into 
a  paragraph  by  means  of  Cause  and  Effect. 

1.  American  superiority  in  manufactures  over  the 
other  nations  of  the  world  is  probably  established. 
(Causes.) 

2.  Macbeth's  crime  was  the  result  of  moral  defects  as 
well  as  of  circumstances.     (Causes.) 

3.  Foot-ball  is  a  benefit  both  physically  and  morally. 
(Effects.) 

4.  The  surrender  of  Vicksburg  gave  new  spirit  to  the 
loyal  men  of  the  North.     (Effects.) 


CHAPTER  VII 

THEMES  OF  TWO  PARAGRAPHS  — EXPOSITION 
AND  ARGUMENT 

1.  We  have  been  discussing  compositions  of  a  single 
paragraph  in  length.  Doubtless  in  some  instances  the 
student  has  thought  of  additional  matter  which  would 
be  of  interest,  but  which  he  has  refrained  from  putting 
into  his  paragraph  for  fear  of  destroying  its  Unity. 
Such  matter  might  possibly  have  been  made  into  an- 
other paragraph,  closely  connected  with  the  first,  and 
his  theme  have  been  expanded  into  two  paragraphs. 
Many  topics,  in  fact,  fall  naturally  into  two  divisions 
and,  even  when  treated  briefly,  should  be  given  two 
paragraphs.  The  selection  from  Addison  in  Chapter  i, 
Exercise  3,  is  an  example;  the  first  paragraph  deals 
with  the  improvements  that  Sir  Roger  introduced  in 
the  church  service,  the  second  deals  with  his  behavior 
in  church.  After  the  study  of  the  composition  of  a  sin- 
gle paragraph,  the  next  step  is  naturally  the  study  of 
the  combination  of  two  or  three  paragraphs  into  a 
theme. 

2.  In  such  themes  we  must  apply  what  we  have 
learned  about  single  paragraphs;  we  can  use  the 
methods  of  development  suggested  in  the  last  chapter, 

69 


yo  Paragraphs 

and  can  constantly  test  our  work  by  the  three  princi- 
ples of  composition.  In  addition,  we  must  consider 
more  carefully  than  before  some  problems  which  we 
have  already  encountered  and  which  offer  greater  diffi- 
culties as  themes  increase  in  length.  Even  in  deciding 
whether  a  theme  is  to  be  of  one  or  two  paragraphs,  we 
meet  the  problems  of  selection,  what  to  put  into  the 
theme, — of  arrangement,  how  to  divide  and  order  it, — 
and  of  proportion,  what  space  to  give  to  each  division. 
3.  The  solving  of  these  problems,  as  of  many  others 
in  rhetoric,  depends  on  the  writer's  purpose  in  present- 
ing the  subject  to  the  reader.  Does  he  seek  to  convince 
his  readers  of  some  truth  or  to  entertain  them  by  a 
story ;  in  either  case  his  plan  and  structure  should  vary 
to  fit  his  purpose.  Any  composition  may,  to  be  sure, 
have  a  complex  purpose ;  it  may  seek  to  entertain  while 
it  convinces,  or  to  present  some  truth  while  it  amuses ; 
but  its  main  purpose  will  generally  be  one  of  four 
kinds,  and  accordingly  all  prose  writing  is  divided  into 
four  classes.  These  have  already  been  illustrated  in 
many  of  our  themes  and  exercises.  The  theme  on 
"  Oxygen  "  was  an  exposition,  for  the  writer  was  try- 
ing to  explain  its  nature  and  properties ;  the  theme  on 
"  Manual  Training  should  be  an  elective  course  in 
grammar  schools  "  was  an  argument,  for  it  sought  to 
convince  the  reader  of  the  truth  of  this  proposition. 
The  theme  on  "  A  Grocery  Store  "  was  a  description, 
for  it  sought  to  give  the  reader  a  mental  picture;  the 
theme  on  ''  A  Day's  Outing  "  was  a  narrative,  for  it 
aimed  to  impress  on  the  reader's  mind  a  succession  of 


Exposition  and  Argument      71 

events.  Any  theme  or  book  can  usually  be  classed, 
according  to  its  chief  purpose,  under  one  of  these  four 
forms  of  prose.  In  Exposition  we  are  aiming  chiefly  at 
making  the  reader  understand  our  ideas ;  in  Argument, 
at  convincing  or  persuading  him  of  their  truth.  In 
Description  we  aim  to  give  him  a  mental  picture  of 
something  as  it  impresses  us ;  in  Narrative,  to  interest 
him  in  a  succession  of  actions  or  events. 
4.  These  kinds  of  writing  cannot  be  exactly  separated. 
Even  a  theme  of  two  paragraphs  may  combine  two  or 
more  kinds.  The  four  general  divisions  do,  however, 
represent  four  distinct  aims  with  which  the  writer  ad- 
dresses the  reader;  and  by  thoroughly  understanding 
these  aims  we  can  prepare  ourselves  for  overcoming 
the  difficulties  peculiar  to  each.  We  shall  now  examine 
under  each  kind  of  writing  some  of  the  difficulties  of 
proportion  and,  more  particularly,  of  selection  and  ar- 
rangement which  arise  in  the  composition  of  short 
themes. 

5-  Exposition  might  just  as  well  be  called  Explana- 
tion. If  a  writer's  main  purpose  is  to  explain,  he  is 
writing  an  exposition,  whether  he  is  defining  ''  Force" 
in  a  Physics  examination  or  expounding  in  a  text-book 
the  art  of  writing  good  English.  Many  of  the  selec- 
tions given  in  this  book  are  expositions,  as  the  para- 
graphs from  Burke,  Darwin,  Macaulay,  and  Newman 
in  the  last  chapter ;  so  are  a  very  large  number  of  edi- 
torials, magazine  articles,  sermons,  lectures,  essays, 
most  scientific  works,  and  all  text-books,  dictionaries, 
and  encyclopedias.     Nearly  every  piece  of  writing,  in 


7  2  Paragraphs 

fact,  has  some  explaining  to  do;  here,  however,  we 
may  consider  for  a  moment  pure  exposition. 

6.  Now  the  first  thing  necessary  in  order  to  write  a 
good  exposition  is  to  keep  in  mind  the  aim — to  make 
the  reader  thoroughly  understand  the  subject.  In  se- 
lection we  must  reject  everything  which  does  not  help 
to  realize  this  aim.  If  "  The  Mechanism  of  an  Auto- 
mobile "  is  the  subject,  we  do  not  need  to  persuade  the 
reader  that  automobiles  will  soon  take  the  place  of 
trolley-cars,  or  to  picture  to  him  an  automobile  race,  or 
to  tell  him  of  an  experience  on  a  journey  in  an  auto- 
mobile from  New  York  to  Albany.  We  must  try 
to  explain  to  him  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
various  parts.  In  order  to  do  this,  very  careful  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  arrangement.  We  shall  need  to 
decide  what  are  the  important  parts  of  the  mechanism, 
and  then  the  order  in  which  they  can  be  most  clearly 
put  before  the  reader.  The  proportion  of  the  theme 
will  also  depend  on  its  main  purpose;  the  parts  that 
need  the  most  space  will  be  those  that  are  most  im- 
portant for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  machine. 

7.  In  every  expository  theme  the  general  method  is 
the  same.  Unity  can  be  secured  by  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial that  really  explains;  Coherence,  by  a  clear  and 
logical  division  and  arrangement;  and  Emphasis,  by 
giving  greater  space  to  the  parts  more  important  in 
explanation.  The  student  can  also  make  use  of  the 
methods  of  developing  ideas  that  we  studied  in  the  last 
chapter.  He  will  need  to  define  carefully  all  terms  that 
might  puzzle  the  reader,  to  amplify  by  supplying  de- 


Exposition  and  Argument      73 

tails  and  particulars,  and  to  illustrate  by  means  of  ex- 
amples and  comparisons.  No  exposition  is  likely  to  be 
clear  without  a  good  deal  of  illustration. 
8.  Let  us  see  how  some  of  these  means  of  explaining 
well  can  be  applied  to  themes  of  two  paragraphs.  The 
following  plans  illustrate  various  methods  of  arrange- 
ment. 

I.      CANNING  PEACHES 

First  Paragraph.     Preparations. 
Second  Paragraph.     The  Process. 

2       A   GOOD   NOTE-BOOK 

First  Paragraph.  Mechanical  Requirements :  size,  mar- 
gins, penmanship,  headings,  index. 

Second  Paragraph.  Contents :  what  should  be  put  in, 
what  left  out,  illustrated  by  a  note-book  on  American 
History. 

3.      SLANG 

First  'Paragraph.  Definition:  since  the  term  is  used 
vaguely,  careful  restriction  and  explanation  of  its  mean- 
ing are  necessary. 

Second  Paragraph.  Illustration :  Examples  that  will  il- 
lustrate every  point  of  the  definition. 

4.      THE  CHARACTER  OF  MACAULAY 

First  Paragraph.  Various  Noteworthy  Traits:  kind- 
ness, good-humor,  freedom  from  vanity,  generosity,  love 
of  reading. 

Second  Paragraph.  The  Most  Prominent  Trait:  en- 
thusiastic energy. 

The  first  two  plans  would  be  developed  largely  by 
means  of  specific  details;  in  the  third,  definition  and  il- 


74  Paragraphs 

lustration  are  separated;  in  the  fourth,  some  of  the 
traits  in  the  first  paragraph  should  be  illustrated  by 
examples,  and  the  prominent  trait  to  which  the  whole 
of  the  second  paragraph  is  given  should  be  fully  illus- 
trated. In  each  case  the  matter  might  have  been  con- 
densed into  a  single  paragraph;  but  the  division  into 
two  is  in  the  first  three  cases  natural  and  logical,  and 
in  the  fourth  case  it  gives  emphasis  to  an  important 
part  of  the  theme.  In  all  four  cases,  it  will  be  observed, 
the  division  and  the  arrangement  of  the  plan  are  in  ac- 
cord with  the  writer's  purpose — to  explain  the  subject. 

9.  Argument,  in  its  typical  form,  deals  with  a  ques- 
tion. The  writer  has  come  to  some  conclusion  in  re- 
gard to  the  question  and  endeavors  to  bring  his  readers 
into  agreement  with  him.  His  conclusion  is  the  subject 
of  his  theme  and  can  be  put  into  the  form  of  a  proposi- 
tion,— this  is  so,  or,  that  ought  to  be  so ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, "  Imperialism  is  a  menace  to  our  institutions,"  or, 
"  More  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  teaching  of 
rhetoric  in  our  schools."  Since  the  writer  is  trying  to 
convince  his  readers  of  the  truth  of  a  proposition,  he 
must  make  his  ideas  entirely  clear  to  them;  conse- 
quently an  argument  almost  always  requires  exposi- 
tion. The  writer  should,  indeed,  ask  himself  at  the 
start  if  his  proposition  is  perfectly  clear.  Can  each 
term  of  the  proposition  be  exactly  defined  in  a  way  that 
will  be  accepted  by  the  reader?  In  the  two  proposi- 
tions just  instanced,  there  would  be  considerable  diffi- 
culty in  arriving  at  such  definitions.  "  Imperialism  " 
is  a  vague  term,  having  different  meanings  to  different 


Exposition  and  Argument      75 

people;  in  using  such  a  term,  the  writer  is  likely  to 
spend  his  time  in  discussing  its  meaning  instead  of  ad- 
vancing proofs  for  his  proposition.  So,  too,  ''  our 
schools  "  and  "  the  teaching  of  rhetoric  "  are  vague,  for 
the  v^riter  probably  has  in  mind  a  certain  class  of 
schools  and  a  particular  kind  of  teaching.  The  attempt 
to  secure  an  impartial  and  clear  proposition  will  usually 
lead  to  a  consideration  of  the  origin  of  the  question.  It 
may  turn  out,  for  instance,  that  the  writer  chose  the 
first  proposition  because  he  was  interested  in  affairs  in 
the  Philippines.  "  Our  policy  in  the  Philippines,"  then, 
could  be  substituted  for  "  Imperialism,"  and  would 
prove  much  easier  to  define  in  a  way  that  every  reader 
would  accept.  The  second  proposition  also  may  have 
been  suggested  by  certain  definite  facts  which  led  the 
writer  to  believe  that  more  instruction  should  be  given 
in  theme-writing  in  his  own  school.  This  last  proposi- 
tion is  clear  and  debatable.  In  every  argumentative 
theme,  then,  the  first  steps  are  expository, — to  put  the 
subject  in  the  form  of  a  proposition;  to  define  the 
terms  of  this  proposition  in  a  way  acceptable  to  all 
readers;  and  to  make  sure  that  it  is  what  we  really 
want  to  argue  about. 

10.  The  problems  of  selection,  arrangement,  and  pro- 
portion in  long  arguments,  such  as  lawyers'  pleas  and 
treatises  in  support  of  scientific  theories,  need  not  re- 
ceive our  attention  here.  They  require  a  full  discus- 
sion of  the  kinds  and  values  of  evidence  and  of  the 
various  ways  of  arranging  it.  In  short  themes  we  are 
usually  presenting  only  a  fragment  of  an  argument, 
one  or  two  reasons  for  or  against  a  proposition.    Here, 


76  Paragraphs 

however,  as  in  longer  compositions,  care  should  be 
taken  to  select  only  those  reasons  that  are  convincing 
and  to  answer  only  those  objections  that  are  important. 
In  arranging  our  material,  we  must  also  be  careful  to 
complete  the  discussion  of  each  proof  before  going  on 
to  the  next ;  and  if  we  come  to  any  conclusion,  we  must 
state  it  distinctly  either  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of 
the  theme. 

II.  The  varieties  of  arrangement  are  considerable 
even  in  short  themes.  The  selection  from  Carlyle  on 
page  59  is  a  good  example  for  the  arrangement  of  a 
single  paragraph,  and  the  following  outlines  illustrate 
a  few  of  the  many  ways  of  arranging  argumentative 
themes  of  two  paragraphs : 

1.  Title:  One  need  of  our  high  school. 
Proposition:  More  time  should  be  spent  on  English 

composition  in  this  school. 
First  Par.     Because  practice  in  writing  themes  is  of 

practical  value  in  life. 
Second  Par.     Because  it  trains  the  mind  in  observing 

and  thinking. 

2.  Title:  Where  should  i  go  to  college? 
Question:  Is  it  more  advantageous  to  attend  college  in 

this  city  or  away  from  home? 

First  Par.  Practical  and  social  advantages  in  remain- 
ing at  home. 

Second  Par.  Educational  advantages  of  the  college 
here  compared  with  those  elsewhere. 

3.  Title  and  Question:  Should  arbitration  be  com- 

pulsory ? 

First  Par.     Some  objections  answered. 

Second  Par,  Some  reasons  why  it  should  be  compul- 
sory. 


Exposition  and  Argument      77 

Each  theme  should  begin  with  some  explanation  of 
the  subject.  In  the  first  the  conclusion  can  perhaps  be 
best  stated  at  the  beginning;  in  the  second  and  third 
it  will  come,  as  is  more  frequently  the  case,  at  the  end. 
The  various  paragraphs  should  be  developed  by  means 
of  proofs  combined  with  examples  and  details. 
12.  Many  argumentative  themes  contain  a  greater 
proportion  of  exposition,  perhaps  enough  for  an  entire 
paragraph,  as  in  the  following  plan: 

Title:  Our  neglect  of  athletics. 

Proposition:  Athletics  in  this  school  should  be  well 
supported  by  the  students. 

First  Par.  Exposition :  the  present  condition  of  ath- 
letics ;  lack  of  support  by  students  in  subscriptions ; 
attendance  and  enthusiasm  at  games. 

Second  Par.  Argument:  reasons  why  students 
should  support  athletics. 

Here  the  exposition  serves  naturally  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  argument.  The  first  paragraph  can  be  de- 
veloped by  means  of  explanation,  particulars,  and  ex- 
amples; the  second,  by  proofs  and  details. 
13'  In  this  chapter  we  have  dealt  with  two  of  the  four 
forms  of  written  prose.  Exposition  and  Argument. 
These  are  both  directed  mainly  to  the  reader's  intellect : 
the  first  aims  to  make  the  writer's  ideas  clear ;  the  sec- 
ond, to  convince  the  reader  of  their  truth.  The  writer 
should  keep  these  aims  in  mind  and  let  them  govern  his 
work  of  selection,  arrangement,  and  proportion.  We 
have  considered  these  problems  in  the  case  of  themes 
of  two  paragraphs.     The  writer  can  avail  himself  of 


J  8  Paragraphs 

the  guidance  of  the  three  Principles  of  Composition 
and  of  the  methods  of  developing  topic-sentences;  but, 
with  all  this  aid,  he  will  have  to  exercise  care  in  the 
division  of  his  subject  and  the  arrangement  of  the  parts 
if  his  theme  is  to  be  either  clear  or  convincing. 

EXERCISES 


1.  Examine  the  articles  in  a  recent  magazine.  Under 
which  of  the  four  kinds  of  writing  would  you  classify 
each  ? 

2.  Of  the  books  that  you  have  read  in  the  course  in 
English  literature,  which  are  expositions,  which  argu- 
ments ? 

3'  In  writing  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  decide 
whether  your  theme  shall  be  of  one  or  two  paragraphs ; 
an  exposition,  argument,  description,  or  narrative : 

1.  What  Books  I  would  Buy  with  Ten  Dollars. 

2.  Benefits  from  the  Study  of  Latin. 

3.  Foods  that  Contain  Starch. 

4.  An     Interesting    Conversation ; — give  the  substance 

of  what  the  speakers  said. 

5.  Some  idea  which  you  tried  to  express  in  conversa- 

tion with  some  person,  and  failed ; — an  explanation 
for  that  person. 

6.  How  I  Earned  a  Dollar. 

7.  Sheridan's  Ride. 

8.  A  Deserted  Farm-house. 

9.  Washington  was  even  Greater  as  a  Statesman  than 

as  a  General. 
10.    An  Objection  to  Fraternities. 


Exposition  and  Argument      79 

4.  Write  an  exposition  of  two  paragraphs  on  one  of 
the  following  subjects,  planning  the  theme  by  para- 
graphs before  beginning  to  write : 

1.  Golf  for  Girls. 

2.  How  to  Take  a  Photograph. 

3.  Evils  of  Strikes. 

4.  Popular  Songs. 

5.  The  Game  of  Golf; — for  some  one  who  has  never 

seen  it  played. 

6.  The  Duties  of  the  Mayor  of  this  City. 

7.  The  Character  of  Malvolio  in  *'  Twelfth  Night." 

8.  Learning  to  Swim. 

9.  How  Food  is  Digested. 
10.     The  Electoral  College. 

5«  Write  an  argument  of  two  paragraphs  on  one  of 
the  following  subjects  ,  first  determining  how  it  is  to  be 
divided  into  paragraphs: 

1.  Are  Examinations  a  Fair  Test  of  Ability? 

2.  Courses  in  Manual  Training  should  be  Given  in  the 

High  School. 

3.  Some  Excuses  for  Slang. 

4.  Reasons  for  Restricting  Immigration. 

5.  Public  Libraries  should  be  Opened  on  Sunday. 

6.  Rebecca  versus  Rowena. 

6.  Write  a  theme  of  two  paragraphs  on  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing topics,  according  to  this  general  plan.  i.  De- 
fine roughly.  2.  Divide  into  two  or  more  classes.  3. 
Illustrate  by  examples.  4.  Give  final  definition  or  es- 
timate. 


I. 

Slang. 

5. 

Gossip. 

2. 

Class-spirit. 

6. 

Literature. 

3- 

Tact. 

7. 

Culture. 

4. 

Good-breeding. 

8. 

Success. 

8o  Paragraphs 

7.  Rearrange  the  following  sentences  so  that  they  will 
form  a  coherent  exposition  o f  one  paragraph.  The  topic 
is,  Physical  Training  in  the  Old  College  and  the  New. 
I.  Sum  up  the  paragraph  in  a  single  sentence.  2.  Clas- 
sify the  sentences  in  three  groups  (or  at  least  two)  ; 
the  members  of  each  group  being  closely  connected  in 
thought.  3.  Arrange  the  sentences  of  each  group.  4. 
The  order  in  which  the  three  groups  combine  to  make 
up  the  paragraph  should  now  be  apparent.  5.  What  is 
the  order  of  thought  which  the  sentences  follow  ?  Do 
they  make  a  perfectly  coherent  paragraph  ? 

1.  It  is  fast  becoming  as  much  a  man's  duty  to  take 
proper  care  of  his  body  as  it  is  to  cultivate  his  reason. 

2.  Physical  vigor  has  therefore  acquired  a  practical 
significance  which  it  never  had  before. 

3.  Most  colleges  have  been  forced  to  provide  the  op- 
portunity for  some  kind  of  physical  training. 

4.  The  old  idea  of  education  was  that  a  youth  could 
obtain  all  the  benefits  of  a  college  training  from  books. 

5.  A  college  simply  represented  study  and  books. 

6.  Education,  crystallized  along  conventional  lines, 
was  confined  mainly  to  men  entering  the  professions  of 
law,  medicine,  and  divinity. 

7.  The  value  of  a  sound  body  was  recognized  in  theory, 
but  in  practice  no  systematic  method  of  obtaining  it 
seemed  to  be  thought  necessary. 

8.  Now  all  this  is  changed. 

9.  The  dominating  note  underlying  courses  of  study 
for  undergraduate  students  is,  before  all  else,  the  produc- 
tion of  enlightened  citizens. 

10.  Many  of  the  professions  now  require  the  higher 
education  as  a  foundation,  and  the  majority  of  subjects 
taught  have  been  placed  on  college  catalogues  within  a  few 
years. 


Exposition  and  Argument      8  i 

II.  The  modern  college  is  obliged  to  take  into  account 
the  demands  of  commerce,  and  the  applications  of  science 
to  the  well-being  of  man. 

8.  The  following  extract  is  given  with  an  analysis 
which  may  serve  as  an  example  for  analysis  of  exposi- 
tory selections  by  the  class,  and  also  as  an  example  of 
the  way  in  which  a  theme  may  be  carefully  planned. 

THE  FOCUS  OF  ENGLISH   PROSE 

The  focus  of  English  prose  is  now  to  be  sought  in  the 
periodical  press.  Articles  in  newspapers  are  written  by 
men  of  the  highest  education,  men  of  literary  culture  and 
of  good  social  tone;  these  writings  are  the  most  widely 
read  of  all  that  is  written,  and  they  undoubtedly  represent, 
in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word,  the  current  standard  of 
English  Prose. 

I  am  not  saying  that  they  furnish  the  finest  or  most  per- 
fect specimens ;  that  is  a  different  matter.  They  are  writ- 
ten off-hand ;  they  are  printed,  circulated,  and  have  passed 
into  the  region  of  old  almanacs,  long  before  the  time  when 
the  student  of  leisure  would  be  thoughtfully  reviewing 
his  composition.  They  are  limited  in  aim  to  the  present ; 
they  are  limited  in  compass  by  the  exigencies  of  the  pub- 
lication, insomuch  that  a  subject  cannot  receive  full  devel- 
opment and  expansion  in  them ;  there  is  so  much  interrup- 
tion in  the  conditions  of  their  production  that  the  writer 
has  not  opportunity  to  pursue  his  thought  to  that  maturity 
wherein  the  mind  kindles  and  glows  with  creative  heat. 
Even  should  any  particular  subject  happen  to  be  so  near 
to  the  heart  of  the  writer  that  something  of  this  enthusi- 
asm occurs  to  him,  he  is  required  by  the  very  character 
of  his  office  to  control  feeling  and  to  maintain  almost  ju- 
dicial reserve  in  the  manner  of  his  diction.  Hence  it  comes 
to  pass  that  the  highest  efforts  of  prose  are  out  of  the 
journalist's  reach,  and  when  we  say  that  the  focus  of  prose 
is  now  in  the  newspapers,  we  confine  our  view  to  that 


8  2  Paragraphs 

average  standard  of  prose  which  is  naturally  within  the 
function  of  journalism. 

It  is  only  after  long  incubation  that  the  mind  of  an 
author  warms  to  his  thought  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring 
out  the  fullest  and  best  expression  of  which  his  genius  is 
capable,  and  therefore  it  is  only  in  the  more  deliberate  and 
matured  productions  that  we  can  expect  to  find  the  high- 
est specimens  of  English  prose.  But  in  the  rapidly  written 
leader  of  the  best  daily  papers,  we  certainly  find  these  three 
things,  the  standard  pitch  of  elevation,  the  most  perfect 
exhibition  of  lucidity,  and  the  modern  art  of  grouping 
discourse  in  paragraphs. 

John  Earle:  English  Prose. 

ANALYSIS 

First  Paragraph. 

First  Sentence.  Topic  stated :  "  The  focus  of  English  prose  is 
now  to  be  sought  in  the  periodical  press." 

Second  Sentence.  Topic  developed  by  means  of  Explanation, 
Repetition. 

Second  Paragraph. 

First  Sentence.  Topic  stated:  This  does  not  furnish  the  finest 
or  most  perfect  specimens. 

Second  Sentence.  A  cause  for  the  topic:  For  articles  in  the 
papers  are  hastily  written. 

Third  Sentence.  Causes :  For  they  are  limited  in  aim  and  com- 
pass to  present  needs,  and  their  production  is  interrupted. 

Fourth  Sentence.  Cause:  For  enthusiasm  is  subordinated  to 
judicial  reserve. 

Fifth  Sentence.  Topic  restated  with  conclusion  expressing  the 
converse: — but  does  furnish  the  average  standard  of  prose. 

Third  Paragraph. 

First  Sentence.  The  negative  side  of  the  topic :  The  best  prose 
is  found  only  in  deliberate  and  matured  productions. 

Second  Sentence.  The  positive  side  of  the  topic :  In  news- 
papers we  find  the  standard  of  elevation,  lucidity,  and  skilful 
paragraphing. 


Exposition  and  Argument      83 

The  Whole  Selection  can  be  summarized  in  a  single  sentence 
which  will  indicate  its  structure:  The  periodical  press  furnishes 
the  focus  of  English  prose  (Par.  i)  ;  not  of  the  most  perfect 
specimens,  but  of  the  average  standard  of  prose  (Par,  2)  ;  not  of 
the  deliberate  expression  of  genius,  but  of  lucidity  and  the  art  of 
paragraphing  (Par,  3). 

II 

9.  Write  a  paragraph  describing  a  picture  in  your 
school  or  one  that  you  are  familiar  with :  e,  g.,  the  por- 
trait of  some  distinguished  man,  Washington,  Jackson, 
Lincoln,  Hawthorne,  Emerson.  These  themes  are  to 
be  read  and  criticized  by  the  class,  and  the  best  selected. 
What  qualities  .distinguish  the  best  ?  What  rules  can 
you  suggest  for  the  selection,  arrangement,  and  propor- 
tion of  material  in  descriptions  ? 

10.  Examine  the  illustrations  (or  a  single  illustra- 
tion) accompanying  a  narrative  article  in  a  magazine. 
Without  reading  the  article,  write  a  short  theme  of  two 
or  three  paragraphs  relating  the  story  suggested  to 
you  by  the  pictures.  The  best  of  these  themes  are  to 
be  selected  and  their  merits  analyzed,  as  in  Exercise  9. 
What  rules  can  you  suggest  for  the  selection,  arrange- 
ment, and  proportion  of  material  in  narratives?  How 
do  these  rules  differ  from  those  suggested  for  descrip- 
tions ? 

11.  Some  of  the  themes  written  in  Exercises  9  and  10 
should  be  revised  or  rewritten  after  studying  Chapter 
8.  Or  themes  on  similar  subjects  may  then  be  written 
and  compared  by  the  student  with  these  earlier  themes. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THEMES  OF  TWO  PARAGRAPHS  —  DESCRIPTION 
AND  NARRATIVE 

1.  Description  and  Narrative  may  be  classed  together 
as  appealing  to  the  feelings  rather  than  to  the  intellect. 
An  exposition  on  "  Base-ball "  would  explain  how 
the  game  is  played,  the  implements  used,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  field,  and  the  duties  of  the  players.  A 
reader  would  understand  all  this,  but  experience  little 
feeling.  As  soon  as  you  begin,  however,  to  write  a  de- 
scription or  a  narrative  about  a  base-ball  game,  you 
appeal  to  the  reader's  feelings.  If  you  describe  the 
scene  at  the  beginning  of  the  game,  he  sees  the  picture 
in  his  imagination,  hears  the  cheers,  and  feels  the  en- 
thusiasm; if  you  narrate  skilfully  the  progress  of  the 
contest,  he  becomes  almost  as  much  interested  as  if  he 
were  present.  In  both  kinds  of  writing  the  words  con- 
vey to  the  reader  a  series  of  impressions  or  images ;  but 
Narrative  represents  a  succession  of  actions,  while 
Description  aims  to  suggest  mental  pictures  in  which 
action  is  only  incidental. 

2.  Description  is  found  by  itself  less  often  than  in 
combination  with  the  other  forms  of  writing.  It  is 
hardly  possible  to  write  a  story  without  describing 

84 


Description  and  Narrative      85 

some  person  or  scene,  or  to  explain  a  general  idea,  such 
as  "  base-ball ''  or  **  courage,"  without  describing  a  par- 
ticular example.  In  practice,  however,  in  themes  of 
one  or  two  paragraphs,  it  will  be  well  to  try  pure  de- 
scription. For  this  very  different  material  must  be 
selected  from  that  required  for  Exposition  or  Argu- 
ment, since  the  purpose  is  different.  The  details  in  the 
description  of  a  person  or  a  landscape  should  be  those 
that  will  suggest  pictures  to  the  reader's  mind,  and 
hence  those  that  have  caught  the  writer's  eye  and 
stirred  his  imagination.  The  writer's  purpose,  how- 
ever, may  be  to  suggest  either  what  every  one  can  see  in 
an  object  or  only  what  he  himself  sees  and  feels.  Thus 
a  description  might  deal  with  the  most  obvious  features 
of  a  city,  with  its  situation,  plan,  divisions,  streets, 
manufactories,  and  public  buildings;  or  with  the  im- 
pressions made  on  the  writer  as  he  passed  through  it  on 
a  train.  The  first  would  be  objective,  the  last  subjec- 
tive. Thus  Gibbon's  description  of  the  harbor  of  Con- 
stantinople in  Chapter  5  presents  such  details  as  any  one 
might  observe,  and  is  objective;  while  Hawthorne's 
description  of  the  orchard  (Chapter  i  Exercise  3)  deals 
with  impressions  that  only  he  received,  and  is  subjec- 
tive. A  writer  must  see  for  himself  and  describe  for 
himself,  but  the  amount  of  personal  feeling  and  fancy 
that  he  puts  into  his  impressions  may  vary  greatly.  In 
any  case  he  can  give  only  a  few  of  many  details,  and  he 
must  select  those  that  seem  most  characteristic,  either 
of  the  object  as  it  appears  to  every  one,  or  of  the  im- 
pressions it  makes  on  him. 


8  6  Paragraphs 

3'  In  the  selection  of  details,  a  writer  must  also  keep 
in  mind  the  limitations  of  words  in  suggesting  mental 
pictures.  Many  things  can  be  presented  by  means  of  a 
photograph  much  better  than  by  words,  and  there  is  no 
use  in  trying  to  compete  with  the  camera  at  its  own 
w^ork.  In  the  picture  of  a  person,  for  example,  the 
camera  shows  accurately  the  size,  shape,  and  position 
of  the  features,  the  curve  of  the  nose,  the  length  of  the 
eyebrows,  the  way  the  hair  is  arranged,  and  hundreds 
of  other  details.  A  mere  enumeration  of  such  details 
in  words  might  be  useful  in  identifying  the  person,  but 
would  give  no  suggestion  of  the  face.  A  page  of  such 
details,  and  you  remember  three  or  four;  a  glance  at 
the  photograph,  and  the  face  is  before  you.  Words  can 
do  some  things,  however,  that  a  photograph  cannot. 
They  can  suggest  colors,  sounds,  odors,  and  motions  of 
all  sorts.  Moreover,  they  can  not  only  enumerate  de- 
tails that  will  identify  a  person,  they  can  suggest  many 
thoughts  and  feelings  about  the  face  that  a  photograph 
would  fail  to  arouse.  The  color  of  the  eyes  and  com- 
plexion, the  way  of  talking,  the  manner  of  scowling 
or  smiling,  the  air  of  thought  fulness,  the  feeling  of  re- 
spect or  liking  or  distrust  which  the  face  creates  —  such 
are  details  that  can  be  well  conveyed  in  words.  Most 
suggestive  of  all  are  details  of  motion  and  feeling. 
4'  We  have,  then,  two  general  rules  for  the  selection 
of  details;  first,  take  those  that  are  characteristic  of  the 
object  described  or  of  our  feeling  toward  it;  second, 
take,  as  far  as  possible,  those  that  a  photograph  could 
not  give.    A  third  rule  may  be  added.    In  any  descrip- 


Description  and  Narrative      87 

tion  introduce  some  things  that  are  characteristic  of  the 
whole.  In  a  description  of  a  face,  for  instance,  we 
should  try  to  suggest  not  merely  a  number  of  details, 
but  the  whole  face. 

5.  How  are  the  details  to  be  arranged  ?  Some  definite 
order  must  be  adopted  if  a  theme  is  to  be  coherent,  but 
evidently  one  cannot  usually  make  logical  divisions  as 
in  expositions,  or  often  follow  a  chronological  order 
as  in  narratives.  When  there  is  any  chance  for  a 
chronological  order,  it  had  better  be  adopted,  as  in  the 
impressions  of  a  city  received  while  passing  through  it 
on  a  train.  In  every  case  a  point  of  view  must  be  taken, 
indicated,  and  maintained.  You  may  view  the  city 
from  a  train,  or  from  a  neighboring  height,  or  as  a  resi- 
dent who  walks  daily  in  the  street,  but  when  you  have 
taken  a  point  of  view  you  must  not  change  it  unless  you 
plainly  indicate  the  change  to  the  reader.  The  point  of 
view  may  at  once  suggest  a  plan.  In  some  cases  a 
writer  can  follow  the  order  of  things  in  space,  then 
there  should  usually  be  some  indication  of  the  frame- 
work on  which  the  details  are  to  be  placed ;  thus  Victor 
Hugo  supplies  a  framework  for  his  elaborate  descrip- 
tion of  Waterloo  by  comparing  the  battle-field  to  a 
capital  A,  and  Stevenson  gives  a  sort  of  mental  map  of 
the  Bay  of  Monterey  by  likening  it  to  a  fish-hook.  In 
other  cases  a  writer  may  begin  with  the  first  vague  im- 
pression and  go  on  with  the  more  vivid  details  that  fol- 
low, as  in  the  description  of  the  interior  of  a  factory. 
In  others,  as  a  busy  street  scene,  he  may  begin  with  a 
number  of  details  and  end  with  the  general  impression 


8  8  Paragraphs 

of  the  whole.  One  direction,  which  applies  to  other 
kinds  of  writing,  will  apply  here.  Proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  from  the  near  to  the  remote, 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  fact  to  fiction. 
Thus,  in  a  description  partly  objective  and  partly  sub- 
jective, a  writer  would  naturally  proceed  from  things 
that  every  one  could  see  to  those  that  excite  his  personal 
attention  and  feeling. 

6.  The  arrangement  must  also  be  governed  by  re- 
quirements of  Emphasis  in  order  that  the  various  de- 
tails may  have  a  unity  of  effect.  This  may  be  aided  by 
a  similarity  in  the  suggestiveness  of  the  different  de- 
tails, as  in  the  paragraph  from  Carlyle's  description  of 
Coleridge  in  Chapter  17,  or  by  a  final  sentence  sum- 
ming up  the  impression  made  by  the  preceding  details, 
as  in  the  paragraph  from  Dickens  on  page  55,  but  in 
any  case  it  requires  the  subordination  of  merely  acces- 
sory details  and  emphasis  of  the  most  characteristic.  If 
a  description  is  to  be  well  proportioned,  the  writer  must 
have  clearly  in  view  the  chief  impression  that  he  wishes 
to  convey  to  the  reader,  and  dwell  on  those  details  that 
assist  in  producing  the  desired  effect. 

7.  The  meaning  of  these  directions  can  be  fully  un- 
derstood only  by  means  of  a  careful  examination  of 
many  good  descriptions,  in  recent  magazines  and 
books  as  well  as  in  the  works  of  recognized  masters, 
like  Stevenson,  Ruskin,  and  Carlyle.  The  following 
selection  is  from  an  article  describing  a  cross  street 
in  upper  New  York  by  the  simple  plan  of  tracing  its 
course  from  the  East  Side  to  the  Hudson  River.    These 


Description  and  Narrative      89 

two  paragraphs  describe  the  intersection  of  the  cross 
street  with  Fifth  Avenue. 


As  each  of  these  succeeding  avenues  is  crossed  with  its 
rush  and  roar  of  up-town  and  down-town  traffic,  the 
neighborhood  is  said  to  be  more  "  respectable,"  meaning 
more  expensive;  more  of  the  women  on  the  sidewalks 
wear  hats  and  paint,  and  there  are  fewer  children  without 
shoes ;  private  houses  are  becoming  more  frequent ;  babies 
less  frequent ;  there  is  more  pretence  and  less  spontaneity. 
The  fiats  are  now  apartments;  they  have  ornate  hideous 
entrances,  which  add  only  to  the  rent.  ...  So  on  until 
here  is  Madison  Avenue  and  a  whole  block  of  private 
houses,  varied  only  by  an  occasional  stable,  pleasant,  clean- 
looking  little  stables,  preferable  architecturally  to  the 
houses  in  some  cases.  And  here  at  last  is  Fifth  Avenue ; 
and  it  seems  miles  away  from  the  tenements,  sparkling, 
gay,  happy  or  pretending  to  be,  with  streams  of  carefully 
dressed  people  flowing  in  both  directions;  New  York's 
wonderful  women.  New  York's  well-built,  tight-collared 
young  men;  shining  carriages  with  good-looking  horses 
and  well-kept  harness,  mixed  with  big,  dirty  trucks  whose 
drivers  seem  unconscious  of  the  incongruity,  but  quite 
well  aware  of  their  own  superior  bumping  ability.  Dodg- 
ing in  and  out  miraculously  are  a  few  bicycles.  .  .  .  And 
now  when  the  other  side  of  the  avenue  is  reached  the  rest 
is  an  anti-climax.  Here  is  the  tradespeople's  entrance  to 
the  great  impressive  house  on  the  corner,  so  near  that 
other  entrance  on  the  avenue,  but  so  far  that  it  will  never 
be  reached  by  that  white-aproned  butcher  boy's  family — 
in  this  generation  at  least.  Beyond  the  conservatory  is  a 
bit  of  back  yard,  a  pathetic  little  New  York  yard,  but  very 
green  and  cheerful,  bounded  at  the  rear  by  a  high  peremp- 
tory wall  which  seems  to  keep  the  ambitious  brown  stone 
next  door  from  elbowing  its  way  up  toward  the  avenue. 

These  next  houses,  however,  are  quite  fine  and  impres- 
sive, too,  and  they  are  not  so  alike  as  they  seem  at  first; 
in  fact,  it  is  quite  remarkable  how  much  individuality 


90  Paragraphs 

architects  have  learned  of  late  years  to  put  into  the  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  feet  they  have  to  deal  with.  The  monotony 
is  varied  occasionally  with  an  English  basement  house  or 
a  tall  wrought  iron  gateway,  and  a  hood  over  the  entrance. 
Here  is  a  white  colonial  doorway  with  sidelights.  The 
son  of  the  house  studied  art,  perhaps,  and  persuaded  his 
father  to  make  this  kind  of  improvement,  though  the  old 
gentleman  was  inclined  to  copy  the  rococo  style  of  the 
railroad  president  opposite.  .  .  .  Half-way  down  the 
block,  unless  a  wedding  or  a  tea  is  taking  place,  the  street 
is  as  quiet  as  Wall  Street  on  a  Sunday.  In  the  rear  can 
be  seen  the  streams  flowing  up  and  down  Fifth  Avenue. 
Scribner's  Magazine^  Nov.,  1900:  The  Cross  Streets 
of  New  York.     Jesse  Lynch  Williams, 

Note  the  careful  selection  of  details;  how  character- 
istic they  are  of  the  scene;  how  suggestive  of  a  variety 
of  feelings,  and  how  they  unite  to  give  an  impression 
of  the  contrast  between  the  lively,  well-to-do  appear- 
ance of  the  avenue  and  the  quiet  of  the  cross  street. 
8.  In  the  following  selection  from  "  Lorna  Doone," 
particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  point  of  view. 

GLEN   DOONE 

.  .  .  And  so  at  last  we  gained  the  top,  and  looked 
forth  the  edge  of  the  forest,  where  the  ground  was  very 
stony  and  like  the  crest  of  a  quarry;  and  no  more  trees 
between  us  and  the  brink  of  the  cliff  below,  three  hundred 
yards  below  it  might  be,  all  strong  slope  and  gliddery. 
And  now  for  the  first  time  I  was  amazed  at  the  appearance 
of  the  Doones'  stronghold,  and  understood  its  nature. 
For  when  I  had  been  even  in  the  valley,  and  climbed  the 
cliffs  to  escape  from  it,  about  seven  years  agone,  I  was 
no  more  than  a  stripling  boy,  noting  little,  as  boys  do,  ex- 
cept for  their  present  purpose,  and  even  that  soon  done 
with.     But  now,  what  with  the  fame  of  the  Doones,  and 


Description  and  Narrative      91 

my  own  recollections,  and  Uncle  Ben's  insistence,  all  my 
attention  was  called  forth,  and  the  end  was  simple  aston- 
ishment. 

The  chine  of  highland,  whereon  we  stood,  curved  to  the 
right  and  left  of  us,  keeping  about  the  same  elevation,  and 
crowned  with  trees  and  brushwood.  At  about  half  a  mile 
in  front  of  us,  but  looking  as  if  we  could  throw  a  stone 
to  strike  any  man  upon  it,  another  crest  just  like  our  own 
bowed  around  to  meet  it ;  but  failed  by  reason  of  two  nar- 
row clefts,  of  which  we  could  only  see  the  brink.  One  of 
these  clefts  was  the  Doone-gate,  with  a  portcullis  of  rock 
above  it,  and  the  other  was  the  chasm  by  which  I  had 
once  made  entrance.  Betwixt  them,  where  the  hills  fell 
back,  as  in  a  perfect  oval,  traversed  by  the  winding  water, 
lay  a  bright  green  valley,  rimmed  with  sheer  black  rock, 
and  seeming  to  have  sunken  bodily  from  the  bleak  rough 
heights  above.  It  looked  as  if  no  frost  could  enter,  neither 
winds  go  ruffling — only  spring  and  hope  and  comfort 
breathe  to  one  another;  even  now  the  rays  of  sunshine 
dwelt,  and  fell  back  on  themselves,  whenever  the  clouds 
lifted;  and  the  pale  blue  glimpse  of  the  growing  day 
seemed  to  find  young  encouragement. 

Richard  D.  Blackmore:  Lorna  Doone, 


The  first  paragraph  has  some  narrative  details,  but  is 
descriptive  in  purpose,  determining  the  point  of  view 
and  the  feeling  of  the  observer.  The  second  paragraph 
begins  with  a  description  of  size  and  form,  taking  de- 
tails in  their  order  in  space,  and  ends  with  the  general 
impression  produced  by  the  sight  of  the  valley. 

9.  In  Narrative  we  are  dealing  with  actions  and  try- 
ing to  make  the  reader  feel  about  them  as  if  they  were 
real.  A  narrative  may  relate  not  only  what  was  done 
and  who  did  it,  but  also  where  it  happened  and  why  it 


92  Paragraphs 

happened;  so  it  may  include  Description  and  Exposi- 
tion. It  may  deal  with  real  or  imaginary  actions,  with 
fact  or  fiction.  A  newspaper  item  giving  an  account  of 
a  murder,  the  novel  "  Huckleberry  Finn,"  a  history  of 
the  Civil  War  in  twenty  volumes,  the  Book  of  Ruth, 
are  all  narratives.  With  the  various  methods  of  con- 
struction in  long  narratives  we  have  no  concern  at 
present,  but  some  of  the  essential  problems  can  be  illus- 
trated in  themes  of  a  paragraph  or  two. 
10.  In  selecting  material,  the  student  must  draw  from 
his  reading  and  experience.  Even  in  fiction  he  must 
base  what  he  imagines  on  what  has  really  happened. 
In  the  simplest  narrative,  such  as  a  short  theme  on  "  A 
Shopping  Trip "  or  "  A  Day's  Outing,"  there  are  a 
great  number  of  happenings  to  draw  from.  In  a  two- 
paragraph  theme  on  "  A  Shopping  Trip,"  it  would  be 
impossible  to  relate  one  tenth  of  the  things  done  and 
seen  and  heard.  Such  an  enumeration  would  indeed 
prove  tiresome  and  ineffective.  Every  narrative  must 
be  a  simplification  of  experience,  a  selection  of  the  most 
important  and  interesting  events.  The  principle  of 
Unity  requires  that  these  should  all  be  connected  with 
the  subject  of  the  theme,  and,  as  in  the  other  kinds  of 
writing,  the  exact  determination  of  the  subject  is  some- 
times half  the  work  of  selection.  In  the  theme  on  "  A 
Shopping  Trip,"  perhaps  the  writer  wishes  to  tell  of 
her  difficulties  in  finding  a  Christmas  present  for  a 
friend.  Or,  if  the  entire  theme  is  not  to  deal  with  the 
purchase  of  the  present,  that  is  the  objective  point,  the 
goal  towards  which  the  other  events  tend.     So  in  a 


Description  and  Narrative      93 

theme  on  "  The  Battle  of  Santiago,"  the  objective  point 
would  be  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  In  a 
short  narrative,  then,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  ex- 
actly what  the  subject  is,  to  decide  on  an  objective 
point,  and  to  select  details  that  are  important  and  in- 
teresting and  that  lead  directly  to  the  objective  point. 

11.  This  objective  point  will  aid  in  the  work  of  pro- 
portion and  arrangement.  The  importance  of  particu- 
lar events  and  the  amount  of  space  they  are  to  receive 
will  be  determined  by  their  relation  to  their  objective 
point.  Minor  incidents  of  heroism  in  the  battle  of  San- 
tiago will  receive  no  place  in  a  theme  of  a  few  para- 
graphs that  must  center  on  the  destruction  of  the  Span- 
ish fleet.  In  arrangement  a  chronological  order  can 
usually  be  followed,  but  there  will  be  some  difficulty 
in  deciding  at  what  time  to  begin  and  end.  Generally 
a  narrative  should  end  at  the  objective  point  or  shortly 
after,  and  should  begin  early  enough  to  make  clear  the 
series  of  events  leading  to  that  point,  and  no  earlier. 
The  theme  on  "  The  Battle  of  Santiago  "  might  well 
begin  with  the  morning  of  that  battle ;  the  one  on  "  A 
Shopping  Trip,"  with  the  first  attempt  to  buy  the 
present.  In  narrating  the  events  from  beginning  to 
end,  a  writer  must  make  sure  that  he  keeps  on  the  road 
and  that  he  progresses  rapidly.  His  road  leads  straight 
ahead  to  the  objective  point;  the  various  events  can  be 
told  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred;  since  he  is 
dealing  with  actions,  his  theme  should  have  action, 
movement,  and  life. 

12.  Two  or  three  means  may  be  mentioned  by  which 


94  Paragraphs 

stories  acquire  movement  and  life,  which,  though  they 
are  especially  applicable  to  fiction,  may  be  used  as  well 
in  narratives  of  fact.  A  writer  often  finds  it  an  aid  in 
concentrating  his  imagination  on  the  events  and  per- 
sons to  tell  a  story  in  the  person  of  one  of  the  actors. 
Thus,  the  narrative  of  a  sortie  in  the  Japanese-Russian 
war  might  gain  in  reality  for  both  writer  and  reader  if 
told  by  an  imaginary  participant,  and  the  whole  char- 
acter of  the  story  would  be  affected  by  the  choice  of 
this  narrator,  whether  Russian  or  Japanese,  a  soldier  or 
an  officer.  Again,  the  interest  of  a  story  is  increased 
if  the  reader  can  be  kept  in  doubt  concerning  the  out- 
come of  some  events,  or  can  be  led  to  anticipate  an 
opposite  outcome;  so,  as  each  new  danger  is  encoun- 
tered, the  reader  should  be  kept  in  suspense  in  regard 
to  the  fate  of  the  Japanese  detachment,  and  even  be  led 
to  expect  its  destruction.  This  element  of  suspense  is 
found  in  all  effective  narratives,  and  suspense  followed 
by  surprise  in  most  lively  ones.  More  important  still 
is  the  element  of  cHmax,  the  increasing  of  interest  until 
the  very  end;  so  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  the 
Japanese  might  increase  until  the  moment  of  their 
final  triumph.  In  the  presentation  of  character  as  well 
as  in  the  narration  of  events,  or  indeed  in  any  kind  of 
writing,  the  last  impression  is  likely  to  be  the  strongest, 
and  the  writer  should  so  present  his  incidents  as  to  ex- 
cite and  accumulate  the  reader's  interest  up  to  the  mo- 
ment of  highest  interest,  the  objective  point. 
13'  The  surest  way  for  the  student  to  learn  how  to 
select  and  arrange  his  materials  and  to  endow  them 


Description  and  Narrative      95 

with  the  diversity  and  animation  of  Hfe  is  to  study  the 
best  narratives  of  Hterature.  The  Old  Testament  is 
full  of  short  narratives  which  are  wonderful  exam- 
ples of  the  rejection  of  unimportant  details  and  the 
effective  simplification  of  experience.  Models  more 
closely  suited  to  themes  can  be  found  in  Jane  Austen, 
Dickens,  Thackeray,  Hawthorne,  and  many  more  re- 
cent authors.  The  student  should  not  try  to  follow 
them  closely,  but  from  chapters  here  and  there  he  may 
gain  many  hints  in  regard  to  his  treatment  of  similar 
topics.  The  opening  chapters  of  "  The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field "  might  suggest  a  method  for  describing  the  life 
of  a  family  of  his  acquaintance;  or  Arthur's  experience 
at  the  theater  in  the  fourth  chapter  of  "Pendennis" 
might  suggest  some  ideas  for  a  theme  on  "  A  Day  at 
the  Circus."  Recent  works  by  John  Fiske,  Woodrow 
Wilson,  Senator  Lodge,  and  President  Roosevelt  will 
serve  as  guides  in  historical  narrative. 
14-  Some  of  the  problems  can  be  studied  in  a  theme 
of  two  paragraphs  on  "  A  Day's  Outing."  Last  sum- 
mer you  and  a  friend  spent  an  enjoyable  day  in  tramp- 
ing. As  you  recall  the  events  of  the  day,  two  or  three 
stand  out  from  the  rest — ^the  meeting  with  the  gipsies, 
the  swim  in  the  river,  and  the  excellent  supper  that  fol- 
lowed. These  must  receive  a  large  portion  of  your 
space,  and  in  so  short  a  theme  the  other  events  must 
be  strictly  subordinate  to  them.  As  the  swim  and 
supper  came  at  the  end  of  the  day,  they  may  well  serve 
as  the  objective  points  of  the  narrative.  The  plan 
might  be  as  follows: 


g6  Paragraphs 

First  Par,  An  early  rising — breakfast — tramping  over 
the  hills — through  the  woods — the  main  road  again — a 
gipsy  camp. 

Second  Par.  A  scanty  dinner  at  a  farm-house — the  heat 
in  the  valley — difficulty  in  finding  lodging  for  the  night — 
at  last  hospitably  received — a  swim  in  the  river — supper. 

In  the  first  paragraph  the  details  lead  naturally  in  the 
order  of  time  up  to  the  meeting  with  the  gipsies.  The 
account  of  this  makes  a  break  in  the  narrative  and  af- 
fords a  place  for  paragraphing.  The  second  paragraph 
leads  on  to  the  objective  point  of  the  story — the  swim 
and  supper. 

15.  In  this  theme  there  would  be  some  description  of 
the  gipsy  camp  and  the  swim  and  in  any  narrative 
there  is  likely  to  be  considerable  description.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  themes  largely  descriptive,  narrative  is 
very  useful  in  supplying  the  essential  quality  of  move- 
ment. Sometimes  a  narrative  paragraph  supplies  an 
introduction  for  a  description ;  in  other  cases  a  thread 
of  narrative  serves  as  an  outline  on  which  can  be  placed 
many  descriptive  details.  Narrative  is  also  often  found 
in  combination  with  exposition.  The  following  outline 
indicates  one  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  two  forms 
may  be  united  in  short  themes: 

THE  EARLY  LIFE  OF  LINCOLN 

First  Par.     Narrative  of  the  events. 
Second  Par.     Exposition  of  the  ways  in  which  this  life 
prepared  him  for  the  presidency. 

16.  In  this  chapter  we  have  dealt  with  the  two  re- 
maining forms  of  prose,  Description  and  Narrative. 


Description  and  Narrative      97 

Both  appeal  largely  to  the  imagination  and  the  feel- 
ings; the  first  aims  to  suggest  mental  pictures,  the 
second  to  represent  events.  In  each  the  writer  must 
select  from  a  vast  number  of  details  a  few  that  are  im- 
portant, characteristic  of  the  subject,  and  suited  to  the 
aim  of  the  particular  form  of  prose.  These  should  be 
arranged  in  chronological  order  when  possible ;  and  in 
all  cases  they  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  subordinate 
minor  details  and  to  bring  into  prominence  the  most 
important  and  suggestive. 

EXERCISES 
I 

1.  Select  descriptive  passages  in  the  first  chapters  of 
"  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,"  "  Ivanhoe,"  "  Silas 
Marner." 

2.  In  writing  descriptions  of  one  or  two  paragraphs 
on  one  of  the  following  topics,  decide  what  is  your 
point  of  view;  what  general  impression  you  wish  to 
convey;  what  details  you  will  use. 

1.  Phoebe.     ("  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables.") 

2.  A  Crowd  of  People. 

3.  A  Visit  to  a  Sugar-camp. 

4.  Description  of  a  Picture. 

5.  A  Dandelion. 

6.  An  Interesting  Advertisement. 

7.  Street  Musicians. 

8.  Cedric's  House.     ("  Ivanhoe.") 

9.  One  of  the  Pictures  in  Goldsmith's  "  Deserted  Vil- 

lage." 


98  Paragraphs 

3-  Write  a  theme  of  one  or  two  paragraphs,  taking 
pains  to  give  details  of  color,  sound,  light,  odor,  mo- 
tion, on  some  portion  of  the  town  in  which  you  live — a 
street  corner,  a  park,  an  alleyway,  a  collection  of  stores, 
a  railway  crossing. 

4-  Write  a  theme  of  two  paragraphs,  using  this  gen- 
eral outline:  i.  General  impressions.  2.  More  specific 
impressions.     3.  The  most  characteristic  detail. 

1.  An  Old  Farm-house. 

2.  Our  School  Building. 

3.  The  Picture  of  a  Battle. 

4.  The  Theater  before  the  Curtain  Rises. 

5.  A  Shop  Window. 

6.  The  Most  Interesting  Person  I   Have   Seen   in  a 

Month. 

7.  The  View  from  My  Window. 

8.  The  Circus  Parade. 

9.  My  First  Impression  of  High  School. 
10.     Our  Back  Yard. 

II'.     The  Park  on  a  Holiday. 

5.  On  the  following  subjects,  in  themes  of  two  para- 
graphs, adopt  this  arrangement:  i.  Size,  shape.  2. 
Specific  impressions  in  their  order  in  space.  3.  General 
impression.  (Compare  the  description  of  the  Doone 
valley  on  pages  90,  91.) 

1.  The  City  from  a  Height. 

2.  The  Public  Square. 

3.  A  Public  Building. 

4.  My  Room. 

5.  A  Street. 

6.  A  Star-fish. 


Description  and  Narrative      99 

7.  A  Dwelling-house; — for  a  person  who  wishes  to 
rent  it. 

8.  An  Old  English  Castle ; — as  seen  in  "  Ivanhoe." 

9.  An  Attractive  Magazine  Cover. 

6.  Write  a  theme  of  two  paragraphs  on  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects,  grouping  a  large  number  of  details  so 
as  to  suggest  the  whole. 


2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

^9 

10 


The  Sitting-room  ; — written  for  one  away  from  home 

so  as  to  suggest  the  family  traits. 
The  Happiest-looking  Girl  in  the  Class. 
My  Impressions  of  a  Concert. 
A  Rainy  Day. 
My  New  Dress. 
The  First  Battle  of  Bull  Run. 
The  Ragman. 

Lake  Erie ; — for  a  person  who  lives  near  the  ocean. 
The  Ocean ; — for  a  person  who  has  never  seen  it. 
An  Orange ; — for  a  person  who  has  never  seen  one. 


7-    Class-room  Exercise.    (Fifteen  minutes.)  Write 

a  report  for  a  newspaper  of  some  recent  event  that  has 

interested  you. 

8.     Write  a  theme  of  one  or  two  paragraphs  on  some 

experience  of  your  childhood  which  remains  clear  in 

your  mind. 

9»     Write  a  narrative  of  two  paragraphs  on  one  of  the 

following  topics : 

1.  Perry's  Victory ; — as  related  by  one  of  the  sailors. 

2.  Moses  at  the  Fair.     ("  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield.") 

3.  The  Attack  on  the  Castle  of  Front  de  Boeuf. 

("  Ivanhoe.") 

4.  The  Trial  by  Combat.     (''  Ivanhoe.") 


loo  Paragraphs 

5.  An  Evening  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Micawber.     ("  David 

Copperfield.") 

6.  The  Story  of  Evangeline ; — not  over  300  words. 

7.  The  Surrender  at  Appomattox ;— as  witnessed  by  a 

soldier  in  the  Confederate  army. 

8.  The  Death  of  Uncas.     ("  The  Last  of  the  Mohi- 

cans.") 

9.  At  a  Coffee-house  with  Mr.  Spectator. 

10.  How  I  Amused  Myself  on  an  Idle  Day. 

11.  The  Day  after  Thanksgiving. 

12.  An  Act  of  Courtesy. 

13.  A  Fox  Hunt. 

14.  A  Try  for  Goal ; — an  account  that  would  be  under- 

stood by  a  person  who  does  not  know  the  game  of 
foot-ball. 

10.  Topics  for  Descriptive-Narrative  Themes  of 
Tv^o  Paragraphs. 

I.  The  Half-mile  Run.  2.  An  Approaching  Train.  3. 
The  Widow  Truby's  Opinion  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley. 
4.  Speaking  My  First  Piece.  5.  The  Cotter's  Saturday 
Night ; — tell  the  story  in  your  own  words. 

11.  Topics  for  Expository-Descriptive  Themes 
OF  Two  Paragraphs. 

I.  A  Character  Sketch;— of  some  person  you  know. 
2.  Pine-trees.  3.  Character  of  Leatherstocking.  ("The 
Last  of  the  Mohicans.")  4.  Metamorphosis  of  a  Butter- 
fly;  of  a  Frog.  5.  An  Interesting  Character  in  History. 
6.  My  Favorite  Character  in  "  David  Copperfield."  7. 
The  Real  Shylock.     8.    Our  Debating  Society. 

12.  Bring  into  class  a  selection  of  not  over  three  para- 
graphs which  seems  to  you  an  excellent  description; 
another  which  seems  an  excellent  narrative.     Make  a 


Description  and  Narrative      i  o  i 

list  of  reasons  for  the  excellence  of  each.  The  works  of 
Stevenson,  Ruskin,  Hawthorne,  or  current  magazine 
articles  will  furnish  examples. 

13*  Analyze  and  criticize  the  selections  chosen  in  Ex- 
ercise 12  and  themes  written  for  the  class  according  to 
this  general  outline : 

1.  Selection. 

2.  Arrangement. 

3.  Proportion. 

Develop  this  plan  of  criticism  for  a  description;  for  a 
narrative. 

14.  Rearrange  the'  following  sentences  so  that  they 
will  make  a  coherent  and  emphatic  description.  The 
subject  is,  the  view  seen  by  the  lime-burner.  Note 
that  the  sentences  give  us  the  point  of  view,  the  time 
of  day,  and  various  details  of  the  village,  the  mountains 
and  clouds.  In  rearranging,  remember  that  the  natu- 
ral order  is  to  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
from  what  is  near  to  what  is  remote,  from  what  is  clear 
to  what  is  indistinct,  from  matters  of  fact  to  matters  of 
the  imagination.  The  reader  has  been  told  something 
about  the  lime-burner  and  little  Joe  in  preceding  para- 
graphs. 

1.  The  early  sunshine  was  already  pouring  its  gold 
upon  the  mountain-tops,  and  though  the  valleys  were  still 
in  shadow,  they  smiled  cheerfully  in  the  promise  of  the 
bright  day  that  was  hastening  onward. 

2.  Old  Graylock  was  glorified  with  a  golden  cloud 
upon  his  head. 


I02  Paragraphs 

3.  Earth  was  so  mingled  with  sky  that  it  was  a  day- 
dream to  look  at  it. 

4.  The  lime-burner  issued  from  the  hut,  followed  by 
little  Joe,  who  kept  fast  hold  of  his  father's  hand. 

5.  The  tavern  was  astir  and  the  figure  of  the  old, 
smoke-dried  stage-agent,  cigar  in  mouth,  was  seen  be- 
neath the  stoop. 

6.  Every  dwelling  was  distinctly  visible;  the  little 
spires  of  the  two  churches  pointed  upwards,  and  caught  a 
fore-glimmering  of  brightness  from  the  sun-gilt  skies 
upon  their  gilded  weather-cocks. 

7.  Stepping  from  one  to  another  of  the  clouds  that 
rested  on  the  hills,  and  thence  to  the  loftier  brotherhood 
that  sailed  in  air,  it  seemed  almost  as  if  a  mortal  man 
might  thus  ascend  into  the  heavenly  regions. 

8.  Scattered  likewise  over  the  breasts  of  the  surround- 
ing mountains,  there  were  heaps  of  hoary  mist,  in  fantas- 
tic shapes,  some  of  them  far  down  into  the  valley,  others 
high  up  towards  the  summits,  and  still  others,  of  the  same 
family  of  mist  or  cloud,  hovering  in  the  gold  radiance  of 
the  upper  atmosphere. 

9.  The  village,  completely  shut  in  by  hills,  which 
swelled  away  gently  about  it,  looked  as  if  it  had  rested 
peacefully  in  the  hollow  of  the  great  hand  of  Providence. 

15.  After  reading  the  following  extract  from  Steven- 
son, note  down  immediately  in  thirty  words  the  impres- 
sions that  remain  in  your  mind.  A  comparison  of  the 
notes  made  by  different  members  of  the  class  will  indi- 
cate what  impressions  are  most  vividly  conveyed  by  the 
selection.  After  a  more  careful  examination,  analyze 
the  description  according  to  the  outline  given  in  Exer- 
cise 13,  taking  care  to  answer  the  following  questions: 
What  is  the  plan?  How  is  the  matter  divided  into 
paragraphs  ?  What  words  and  phrases  give  images  of 
color?  of  sound?  of  motion?    What  figures  give  the 


Description  and  Narrative      103 

most  vivid  mental  pictures?  From  what  poem  is  a 
quotation  taken?  What  suggestiveness  has  this  quo- 
tation?   Is  use  made  of  suspense?  of  climax? 


ACROSS    THE   LOZERE 

The  track  that  I  had  followed  in  the  evening  soon  died 
out,  and  I  continued  to  follow  over  a  bald  turf  ascent  a 
row  of  stone  pillars,  such  as  had  conducted  me  across  the 
Goulet.  It  was  already  warm.  I  tied  my  jacket  on  the 
pack,  and  walked  in  my  knitted  waistcoat.  Modestine 
herself  was  in  high  spirits,  and  broke  of  her  own  accord, 
for  the  first  time  in  my  experience,  into  a  jolting  trot  that 
sent  the  oats  swashing  in  the  pocket  of  my  coat.  The 
view,  back  upon  the  northern  Gevaudan,  extended  with 
every  step;  scarce  a  tree,  scarce  a  house,  appeared  upon 
the  fields  of  wild  hill  that  ran  north,  east,  and  west,  all 
blue  and  gold  in  the  haze  and  sunlight  of  the  morning. 
A  multitude  of  little  birds  kept  sweeping  and  twittering 
about  my  path ;  they  perched  on  the  stone  pillars,  they 
pecked  and  strutted  on  the  turf,  and  I  saw  them  circle 
in  volleys  in  the  blue  air,  and  show,  from  time  to  time, 
translucent  flickering  wings  between  the  sun  and  me. 

Almost  from  the  first  moment  of  my  march,  a  faint 
large  noise,  like  a  distant  surf,  had  filled  my  ears.  Some- 
times I  was  tempted  to  think  it  the  voice  of  a  neighboring 
waterfall,  and  sometimes  a  subjective  result  of  the  utter 
stillness  of  the  hill.  But  as  I  continued  to  advance,  the 
noise  increased  and  became  like  the  hissing  of  an  enor- 
mous tea-urn,  and  at  the  same  time  breaths  of  cool  air 
began  to  reach  me  from  the  direction  of  the  summit.  At 
length  I  understood.  It  was  blowing  stiffly  from  the 
south  upon  the  other  slope  of  the  Lozere,  and  every  step 
that  I  took  I  was  drawing  nearer  to  the  wind. 

Although  it  had  been  long  desired,  it  was  quite  unex- 
pectedly at  last  that  my  eyes  rose  above  the  summit.  A 
step  that  seemed  in  no  way  more  decisive  than  many  other 
steps  that  had  preceded  it — and,  "  like  stout  Cortez  when, 


I04  Paragraphs 

with  eagle  eyes,  he  stared  on  the  Pacific,"  I  took  posses- 
sion, in  my  own  name,  of  a  new  quarter  of  the  world. 
For  behold,  instead  of  the  gross  turf  rampart  I  had  been 
mounting  for  so  long,  a  view  into  the  hazy  air  of  heaven, 
and  a  land  of  intricate  blue  hills  below  my  feet. 

R.  L.  Stevenson  :  Travels  with  a  Donkey  in  the 
Cevennes. 

II 

i6.  In  the  description  of  Glen  Doone,  on  pages  90,  91, 
what  words  do  you  not  understand  ?  What  words  are 
used  in  an  unusual  way?  What  constructions  are  un- 
usual?   What  reason  for  this  quaintness  of  language? 

17.  Make  a  plan  for  a  theme  of  four  or  five  para- 
graphs,— to  be  criticized  in  class. 

18.  Note  the  sentences  of  the  first  three  selections  in 
Chapter  6.  Which  seem  to  you  especially  well  con- 
structed? Do  they  observe  the  principles  of  compo- 
sition ?     By  what  means  ? 


CHAPTER  IX 
LONGER  THEMES  — THE  PLAN 

1.  The  study  of  themes  of  one  or  two  paragraphs  has 
led  us  to  the  composition  of  longer  themes.  In  the  four 
succeeding  chapters  we  are  to  study  the  planning,  de- 
velopment, and  paragraphing  of  themes  of  some  length. 
In  considering  these  stages  of  construction,  we  must 
not,  however,  forget  that  every  step  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  writer's  purpose.  What  we  have  learned  in  re- 
gard to  the  aims  and  methods  of  the  four  forms  of 
prose  will,  therefore,  be  as  constantly  applicable  in  long 
themes  as  in  short  ones;  and  in  every  theme  we  shall 
need  to  vary  and  adapt  the  processes  of  composition  in 
orded  to  suit  the  purpose  of  the  theme,  whether  exposi- 
tory, argumentative,  descriptive,  or  narrative.  Nev- 
ertheless these  varying  purposes  are  really  but  develop- 
ments of  the  main  purpose  of  composition, — to  express 
our  ideas  with  clearness  and  force ;  and  much  that  can 
be  said  of  planning,  paragraphing,  or  any  other  pro- 
cess, can  be  readily  applied  to  all  four  kinds  of  writing. 

2.  A  composition  must  have  a  plan.  In  the  case  of  a 
very  short  theme,  the  student  may  be  skilful  enough  to 
make  the  plan  in  his  head ;  but  in  all  long  themes,  and 
most  short  ones  as  well,  he  will  find  it  helpful  to  write 

105 


io6  Longer  Themes 

the  plan  out  carefully  as  the  first  step  of  composition. 
The  work  of  selecting  and  arranging  the  material  is 
often  half  the  job.  Half  the  time,  then,  that  one  has 
for  any  long  exercise  may  frequently  be  well  spent  on 
the  plan. 

3'  A  specific  case  will  illustrate  the  steps  that  are 
necessary  in  making  even  a  brief  and  simple  plan.  We 
will  suppose  that  from  the  general  topic,  "  Some 
Things  that  I  Enjoy,"  the  student  has  taken  "  My  En- 
joyment in  Reading"  for  the  subject  of  a  theme  of 
four  or  five  hundred  words.  If  he  should  jot  down 
the  ideas  that  occur  to  him  on  this  subject,  they  might 
be  as  follows : 

1.  Reading  is  a  great  pleasure. 

2.  I  forget  about  everything  else  and  live  in  the  story. 

3.  I  never  read  many  novels  until  within  a  year  or  two. 

4.  I  don't  read  the  newspapers  now. 

5.  I  like  a  story  with  lots  of  excitement  in  it. 

6.  I  don't  like  love  stories. 

7.  By  an  open  fire  on  a  winter's  night  is  the  best  place 
to  read  in. 

8.  Especially  if  you  have  some  apples  to  eat. 

9.  When  I  read  a  good  story,  the  people  are  as  real 
as  in  life. 

10.  I  don't  like  ghost  stories  or  fairy  stories. 

11.  I  often  feel  as  if  I  were  one  of  the  persons  in  the 
story. 

12.  "Treasure    Island"    is    the   last   book    which    I 
greatly  enjoyed. 

13.  Books  often  give  more  enjoyment  than  games. 

This  list  may  serve  to  represent  the  disordered  way  in 
which  ideas  come  into  our  minds.    By  the  time  they  are 


The  Plan  107 

noted  down,  the  writer  probably  sees  the  need  of  having 
his  purpose  clearly  defined ;  in  this  case,  it  is  largely  de- 
scriptive,— to  picture  his  own  experiences  in  reading. 

4.  From  these  various  details,  what  are  to  be  selected  ? 
Every  incident,  idea,  or  illustration  must  be  tested  by 
the  principle  of  Unity.  The  student  must  ask,  is  this 
in  accord  with  my  purpose?  does  this  belong  to  the 
subject  ?  Now,  in  describing  his  enjoyment  of  a  book, 
number  one  is  of  no  importance  and  number  four  is  en- 
tirely irrelevant.  Number  three  is  not  connected  with 
the  subject  unless  he  desires  to  give  some  history  of  his 
growth  in  the  enjoyment  of  novels,  and  numbers  six 
and  ten  are  useless  unless  he  wishes  to  tell  what  he  does 
not  like  as  well  as  what  he  does.  Number  thirteen  is  a 
vague  general  assertion,  not  closely  connected  with 
"  My  Enjoyment  in  Reading."  The  seven  remaining 
numbers  all  seem  closely  connected  with  the  subject. 
In  a  similar  way  the  principle  of  Unity  can  be  used  as 
a  practical  test  in  planning  every  theme.  Of  the  va- 
rious details  that  gather  in  the  mind,  some  will  at  once 
appear  closely  connected  with  the  subject;  others 
wholly  irrelevant;  and  others,  on  the  line.  These  last 
must  be  carefully  scrutinized  in  the  light  of  the  writer's 
purpose. 

5.  The  material  is  now  selected  for  the  theme;  the 
next  thing  is  to  arrange  it.  In  the  arrangement  the 
principle  of  Coherence  must  be  the  guide.  The  differ- 
ent parts  are  to  be  so  placed  that  their  connection  will 
be  clear.  At  a  glance  it  can  be  seen  that  some  of  the 
ideas  are  intimately  connected  with  one  another ;  num- 


io8  Longer  Themes 

ber  seven  with  number  eight;  numbers  two,  nine,  and 
eleven ;  numbers  five  and  twelve.  The  parts  closely  re- 
lated in  thought  must  be  put  together  in  the  plan,  which 
will  now  look  something  like  this : 

A.  (7,  S.y  I  like  to  read  by  an  open  fire  on  a  winter 
night  with  some  apples  to  eat. 

B.  (2,  9,  II.)  I  forget  about  my  surroundings  and 
live  in  the  story.  The  people  in  the  book  are  real.  I  feel 
that  I  am  one  of  them. 

C.  (5,  12.)  I  enjoy  an  exciting  story,  full  of  adven- 
tures, like  "  Treasure  Island." 

Perhaps  numbers  six  and  ten,  not  important  by  them- 
selves, might  be  brought  in  under  C.  At  all  events,  the 
details  are  now  grouped  together  under  three  heads,  a 
great  gain  in  Coherence.  Frequently  one  can  deter- 
mine the  main  divisions  at  the  start  and  then  arrange 
details  under  them.  In  a  theme,  for  example,  on 
*'  What  Our  School  Needs,"  the  divisions  might  be  as 
follows : 

1.  A  Gymnasium. 

2.  More  Books  in  the  Library. 

3.  An  Assembly  Hall. 

4.  A  Lunch-room. 

In  any  case,  the  principle  of  Coherence  requires  that  the 
material  be  grouped  under  a  few  main  headings. 
6.  The  student  can  next  consider  the  arrangement  of 
these  main  headings.  Oftentimes  an  arrangement  will 
occur  to  him  as  soon  as  his  ideas  begin  to  gather  about 
a  subject.    If  a  chronological  order  is  possible,  it  may 


The  Plan  109 

be  adopted.  In  an  account  of  a  picnic,  for  example,  one 
might  note  at  once  a  few  main  heads  in  their  chrono- 
logical order. 

1.  The  Arrival  of  Our  Party  at  the  Grove. 

2.  How  We  Passed  the  Morning. 

3.  Luncheon. 

4.  The  Ball  Game  in  the  Afternoon. 

5.  The  Return  Home. 

The  order  of  time  can  almost  always  be  followed  in 
narratives,  and  often  in  descriptions  and  expositions. 
In  a  description  of  an  incoming  train,  for  instance,  a 
writer  would  naturally  begin  with  the  impressions  he 
receives  from  the  train  in  the  distance  and  follow  its 
course  as  it  comes  nearer  and  nearer.  A  description  of 
a  public  square  might  treat  it  as  seen, — (i)  in  early 
morning,  (2)  at  noon,  (3)  in  the  afternoon,  (4)  in  the 
evening.  An  exposition  of  a  manufacturing  process 
would  naturally  follow  the  order  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  different  operations. 

7.  When  a  theme  does  not  deal  with  events  or  things 
that  have  relations  in  time,  some  other  order  must  be 
sought.  A  number  of  arrangements  may  be  recalled 
that  were  suggested  in  our  discussion  of  the  different 
kinds  of  writing. 

1.  The  order  of  things  in  space:  e.  g.,  (a)  from  near  to 

distant;  (b)  from  right  to  left;  (c)  from  bottom 
to  top;   (Description). 

2.  The  order  of  impressions:  e.  g.,  (a)  general  to  par- 

ticular; (b)  vague  to  distinct;  (c)  from  impres- 
sions of  details  to  an  impression  of  the  whole;  (d) 
from  fact  to  fancy;  (Description). 


no  Longer  Themes 

3.  The  order  of  proof:  (i)  question;  (2)  proofs;  (3) 

conclusion ;    (Argument) . 

4.  The  order  of  explanation:   (i)   the  thing  to  be  ex- 

plained; (2)  the  different  parts,  in  order  of  their 
relation  in  space  or  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect ; 
(3)  summary;  (Exposition). 

Sometimes  the  subject-matter  will  readily  suggest 
divisions  in  a  logical  order.  Thus  in  this  chapter  the 
main  divisions  are  arranged  as  follows:  (i)  Unity, 
(2)  Coherence,  (3)  Emphasis.  In  some  text-books 
however.  Emphasis  is  considered  before  Coherence.  It 
is  not  always  easy  to  decide  what  order  of  the  main  di- 
visions is  most  natural  and  logical  for  one's  purpose. 
Enough  has  perhaps  been  said  to  enable  you  to  consider 
for  yourself  the  arrangement  of  the  three  divisions,  on 
page  108,  for  the  theme  on  "  My  Enjoyment  in  Read- 
ing." There  are  only  six  arrangements  possible. 
Which  seems  the  most  natural  and  logical,  the  best 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the  theme? 

8.  So  far  we  have  seen  that  we  are  to  select  the  ma- 
terial for  a  theme  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of 
Unity.  Then  we  must  group  together  ideas  that  are 
closely  connected  and  arrange  the  groups  in  an  evident 
order,  chronological  or  logical,  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  of  Coherence.  We  should  not,  however,  com- 
plete the  arrangement  without  the  aid  of  the  principle 
of  Emphasis. 

9.  We  have  been  arranging  material  as  the  subject 
seemed  to  require,  but  have  not  particularly  considered 
the  reader.    In  planning  a  theme  to  suit  him,  we  shall 


The  Plan  1 1 1 

find  aid  in  the  principle  of  Emphasis, — that  the  most 
important  ideas  should  be  given  the  greatest  space  and 
the  most  important  positions.  In  the  theme  on  "  My 
"Enjoyment  in  Reading,"  we  have  already  applied  this 
principle  in  ruling  out  several  ideas  of  little  or  no  im- 
portance. The  student  may  now  consider  the  relative 
importance  of  the  three  main  divisions.  A,  B,  and  C,  on 
page  1 08.  The  account  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  he  likes  to  read  (A)  is  certainly  of  less  impor- 
tance than  the  sort  of  books  he  likes  to  read  (C),  or 
than — what,  in  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  theme,  seems 
most  important  of  all — the  account  of  his  feelings  while 
reading  ( B ) .  So  in  the  outline  of  the  theme  on  "  What 
Our  School  Needs,"  on  page  108,  the  need  of  a  new 
gymnasium  will  probably  seem  more  important  to  the 
writer  than  the  need  of  a  lunch-room.  If  the  gymna- 
sium were  treated  in  a  single  sentence  and  the  lunch- 
room given  an  entire  paragraph,  the  reader  would  natu- 
rally pay  more  attention  to  the  lunch-room.  We  must 
see  to  it  that  the  reader's  estimate  of  the  relative  value 
of  our  ideas  corresponds  to  ours.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished in  part  by  giving  the  plan  good  proportion. 
10.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  also  suggests  that  the 
most  important  idea  be  given  the  best  position.  We  all 
know  people  who,  in  telling  a  story,  invariably  give  the 
point  away  before  they  come  to  the  end.  If  they  ob- 
served the  principle  of  Emphasis,  they  would  save  the 
point  until  the  end.  So  a  well-planned  theme  will  lead 
the  reader  step  by  step  to  the  most  important  matter. 
Considerable  effort  is  often  required  to  accomplish  this, 


112  Longer  Themes 

for  a  writer  is  likely  to  have  his  most  important  idea 
uppermost  in  his  mind  and  to  be  eager  to  get  it  on 
paper.  It  will  make  a  better  impression  on  the  reader 
if  it  is  well  prepared  for.  Whenever  Coherence  per- 
mits, the  material  should  increase  in  interest  to  the  end, 
thus  making  a  climax.  At  all  events,  we  must  avoid 
giving  the  reader  a  tumble  from  what  is  interesting 
to  what  is  much  less  so.  The  theme  on  "  What  Our 
School  Needs  "  should  certainly  end  with  the  need  that 
seems  the  most  important.  The  theme  on  "  My  Enjoy- 
ment of  Reading  "  might  take  this  order. 

I.     (A)   Circumstances. 
II.     (C)   Kind  of  Books. 
III.     (B)   My  Feelings. 

This  is  a  good  order  because  it  is  coherent — it  passes 
from  the  writer's  surroundings  to  his  book  and  then 
to  his  feelings.  It  is  also  emphatic — it  begins  with  what 
are  accessories  to  his  enjoyment  and  ends  with  the  es- 
sential part  of  his  enjoyment. 

II.  Let  us  see  how  the  plan  looks  after  going  through 
the  tests  of  all  the  principles.  Compare  it,  as  a  guide  to 
the  writer  in  expressing^  his  purpose,  with  the  rudimen- 
tary form  on  page  io6. 

I.     (50-100  words.)     I  enjoy  reading  by  an  open  fire 
on   a  winter  night   with  some 
apples  to  eat. 
II.     (ioa-150  words.)    I     must     have     an     interesting 

novel — not  a  story  of  love, 
ghosts,  or  fairies,  but  a  story 
of  adventure  like  "  Treasure 
Island." 


The  Plan  113 

III.  (250  words.)  Then  I  forget  all  my  surround- 
ings and  live  with  the  people 
of  the  book  and  believe  my- 
self one  of  them. 

12.  This  plan  is  scanty,  but  is,  perhaps,  sufficient  for 
a  theme  of  400  words.  A  plan  for  a'  longer  theme 
is  more  difficult,  but  encounters  the  same  problems 
of  selection,  arrangement,  and  proportion,  and  should 
follow  the  same  principles.  These  principles  do  not 
dictate  exactly  how  a  plan  shall  be  made ;  they  merely 
furnish  practical  suggestions.  A  half-dozen  good 
plans  might  be  made  on  the  same  subject;  any  plan 
will  vary  according  to  the  writer's  purpose  and  the 
character  of  the  readers  addressed;  but  no  plan  will 
be  the  basis  for  a  good  composition  unless  it  has  Unity, 
Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 

i3«  In  order  to  illustrate  a  plan  of  a  longer  theme,  this 
chapter  will  end  with  a  plan  of  its  contents  (beginning 
with  paragraph  2). 

I.  {Paragraph  2.)  Before  beginning  to  write,  the 
student  should  make  a  plan  of  his  theme. 

II.  {Paragraphs  j,  4.)  In  selecting  his  material 
he  should  be  guided  by  the  principle  of  Unity. 

From  various  ideas  that  present  themselves  he  must 
eliminate  the  irrelevant  and  retain  only  those  that 
belong  to  his  subject. 

III.  {Paragraphs  5^  6,  7.)  In  arranging  the  ma- 
terial he  should  be  directed  by  the  principle  of  Coher- 
ence. 

8 


114  Longer  Themes 

1.  Group  closely  connected  ideas  together  so  as  to 

form  a  few  main  divisions. 

2.  Arrange  these  divisions  in  a  natural  order : 

(a)  either  chronological, 

(b)  or  logical,  following  the  order  of  space, 
of  proof,  of  impressions,  or  of  explanation. 

Between  III  and  IV  there  is  a  transitional  para- 
graph,— No.  8. 

IV.  (Paragraphs  p,  lo. )  In  determining  the  space 
and  position  to  be  given  to  any  division,  he  should  be 
directed  by  the  principle  of  Emphasis. 

1.  Determine  the  relative  value  of  the  ideas  and  give 

space  to  each  in  proportion  to  its  importance. 

2.  When  possible,  let  the  order  be  a  climax. 

V.  {Paragraphs  ii,  12,  Jj.)  There  may  be  sev- 
eral good  plans  for  the  same  subject,  but  they  must  all 
face  these  problems,  and  all  should  be  guided  by  the 
principles  of  composition. 

1.  A  complete  plan  of  a  theme  of  500  words. 

2.  A  complete  plan  of  this  chapter. 

EXERCISES 

I 

I.  In  the  completed  plans  on  pages  11 2- 114,  each 
heading  is  in  the  form  of  a  sentence.  Of  what  advan- 
tage is  this?  What  advantage  is  there  in  the  careful 
numbering  of  the  subdivisions?  How  does  the  ar- 
rangement of  subdivisions  on  pages  11 3- 114  carry  out 


The  Plan  1 1 5 

the  principle  of  Coherence  ?  Can  you  suggest  any  vari- 
ations in  either  plan? 

2.  Make  a  plan,  similar  in  form  to  the  one  on  pages 
113-114,  of  Chapter  i  of  this  book.  Make  a  plan  of 
the  chapter  on  Christmas  Eve  in  Irving' s  "  Sketch 
Book/' 

3-  Find  the  main  divisions  of  a  recent  magazine  ar- 
ticle; of  a  column  editorial.  Make  brief  plans  of  each, 
giving  only  the  main  headings. 

4.  Make  plans,  v^ith  at  least  three  main  heads  and 
with  subheads  under  each,  for  themes  of  400-500 
words  on  one  of  the  following,  or  a  similar  subject. 
Several  plans  on  the  same  subject  will  be  compared 
and  criticized  in  the  class.  After  your  plan  has  been 
criticized  and  rewritten,  you  may  write  a  theme  based 
on  the  plan. 

1.  A  Roman  House. 

2.  My  First  Business  Experience. 

3.  A  Deserted  Farm. 

4.  The  Mechanism  of  an  Automobile. 

5.  My  Favorite  Hero  in  Fiction. 

6.  My  Favorite  Heroine  in  Fiction. 

7.  Report  of  a  Sermon  or  Lecture. 

8.  Condition  of  America  in  1775.     (Burke.) 

9.  Some  Good  Points  in  the  Character  of  Cassius. 

10.  The  Marshmallow  Roast. 

11.  Summer  Sports  in  the  Country. 

12.  How  I  Furnished  My  Room. 

13.  Advantages  of  Coeducation  in  College. 

14.  How  I  Read  the  Newspaper. 

15.  Books  that  I  Read. 

16.  A  blast-furnace. 

5-  Criticize  the  following  plans.  Suggest  Improve- 
ments either  in  their  form  or  contents. 


1 1 6  Longer  Themes 


I.   A   HARD   PULL 


I  Introduction.  (a)  The  wonderful  Niagara. 

II  The  village.  (a)  The  inhabitants. 

Ill  The  trip  from  the  city. 

IV  The  danger. 

V  The  rescue.  (a)  The  bravery  of  the  men. 


VI  The  reward. 


(For  a  theme  of  600  words.) 


2.    A   WESTERN   TORNADO 

I  Introduction.  (a)  Typical  June  nights. 

II  One  June  night.  (a)   Inside. 

{b)   Outside. 
Ill  In  the  morning.  (a)  Peculiarities  of  different 

buildings. 
IV  Conclusion. 

{For  a  theme  of  600  words.) 

3.      AN   OLD  OAK 

I  Location. 

II  Appearance. 

III  The  watering-trough. 
IV  A  shady  retreat. 

V  The  school-house. 

VI  The  oak  in  the  summer  and  in  the  winter. 
VII  A  winter's  morning. 
VIII  Reflections. 

{For  a  theme  of  500  words.) 

4.      LOOKING  DOWN    SHERIDAN   ROAD 

I  Introduction.  (a)   Point  of  view. 

II  The  road.  (a)  Appearance. 

III  Left-hand  view.  (a)   Path. 

{h)  Lake. 

IV  Conclusion.  {a)  Effect  of  the  scene. 

{For  a  theme  of  yoo  words.) 


The  Plan  117 


5.    BACHELOR  QUARTERS 

1.  Near  B — ,  live  three  old  bachelors,  of  Dutch  descent. 

(a)  Their  names. 

(b)  Appearance. 

(c)  Dress. 

(d)  Business,  keeping  bees 

2.  In  front  of  their  house  is  a  garden ; 

(a)  with  the  family  name  written  in  foliage  plants, 

(b)  and  trumpet-vine  on  gate  and  path; 

(c)  here  the  bees  sip  nectar. 

3.  From  the  garden  two  paths  lead, 

(a)  the  one  to  the  orchard, 

(b)  the  other  to  the  back  yard : 
i.  the  porch. 

ii.  the  clothes-line. 

4.  Near  by  are  the  beehives, 

(a)  each  one  covered  with  brightly  painted  pictures. 

(b)  The  inhospitality  of  the  bees  contrasted  with  the 

hospitality  of 'their  masters. 

(For  a  theme  of  600  words.) 

II 

6.  Bring  into  the  class  one  example  each  of  a  good 
beginning  and  a  good  end  of  a  composition,  taken  from 
a  newspaper,  magazine,  or  book. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  BEGINNING  AND  THE  END 

1.  The  parts  of  a  composition  that  usually  present  the 
most  difficulty  and  require  the  most  attention  are  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  The  principles  of  composition 
are  of  assistance ;  the  principle  of  Unity  suggests  that 
both  the  beginning  and  the  end  must  be  closely  con- 
nected with  the  subject;  the  principle  of  Coherence 
suggests  that  the  beginning  be  the  first  step  in  a  natural 
sequence  of  ideas,  and  the  end  the  last  step.  The  prin- 
ciple of  Emphasis  is  of  still  greater  service  because  the 
beginning  and  the  end  are  the  two  places  that  most 
readily  catch  the  reader's  eye,  and  are  the  places, 
therefore,  for  the  significant  parts  of  the  material. 

2.  Keeping  these  suggestions  in  mind,  let  us  look 
more  closely  at  some  of  the  ways  in  which  we  are  likely 
to  prove  false  to  our  principles.  One  common  fault  is 
beginning  too  far  from  the  subject.  In  a  theme  about 
a  picnic,  there  is  no  need  of  beginning  with  last  year's 
picnic,  or  picnics  in  general,  or  remarks  about  the  wea- 
ther. Such  introductions  would  all  be  violations  of 
Unity,  for  the  subject  is  a  particular  picnic,  and  the 
theme  may  as  well  begin,  say,  with  the  arrival  at  the 
grove.    On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  always  safe  to  start 

ii8 


The  Beginning  and  the  End     119 

in  the  middle  of  a  subject.  In  a  theme  on  the  manufa<:- 
ture  of  steel  wire,  a  brief  explanation  of  the  process  by 
which  crude  iron  ore  is  changed  into  steel  might  be 
necessary  before  an  account  of  the  drawing  out  of  the 
bars  into  wire.  So  a  description  of  a  school  building 
might  begin  with  the  outside  as  seen  from  some  par- 
ticular point,  so  that  the  reader  can  understand  where 
he  is  supposed  to  be  standing,  and  later,  when  he  reads 
the  account  of  the  interior,  can  compare  it  with  his  first 
view.  A  theme  is  like  a  series  of  steps  which  the  reader 
is  to  ascend,  and  the  principle  of  Coherence  requires 
that  the  first  step  be  one  that  he  can  take  easily.  It 
should  be  adapted  not  to  the  writer's  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  but  to  the  reader's  supposed  lack  of  knowledge. 
Finally,  the  beginning  should  not  be  insignificant  or 
uninteresting.  It  will  be  the  first  thing  in  the  theme  to 
catch  the  reader's  eye,  and  should  be  something  that 
will  excite  his  interest  in  the  subject. 
3'  The  best  beginning  is  often  a  definite  statement  of 
what  the  writer  is  going  to  do.  In  a  theme  on  "  What 
Our  School  Needs,"  the  first  sentence  might  well  be 
a  statement  of  what  those  needs  are.  Such  a  beginning 
tells  the  reader  what  the  composition  is  to  be  about  and 
enables  him  to  follow  its  plan  easily.  Sometimes  a 
theme  should  begin  with  a  definition  of  the  subject  or 
an  explanation  of  its  origin  or  of  the  writer's  point  of 
view  toward  it.  In  any  case,  the  opening  sentences 
should  be  easy  for  an  average  reader  to  understand  and 
should  lead  him  directly  into  the  subject. 
4.     Nowadays  well-written  compositions  accord  with 


I20  Longer  Themes 

these  requirements.  A  long  editorial  in  the  New  York 
"  Sun  "  on  "  The  British  Naval  Manoeuvres  "  begins : 

The  programme  for  the  annual  manoeuvres  of  the 
British  Navy,  which  will  begin  probably  some  time  next 
week,  is  more  than  usually  interesting  and  important  in 
the  problems  it  offers  for  solution. 

A  magazine  article  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Godkin  on  "  The  Aus- 
tralian Democracy  "  takes  up  the  subject  with  equal 
directness,  beginning : 

The  only  really  democratic  experiment,  beside  our  own, 
going  on  in  the  world  to-day,  is  that  of  the  English  Aus- 
tralian colonies. 

An  essay  on  "  A  New  England  Hill  Town "  begins 
with  one  of  the  most  noticeable  characteristics  of  such 
a  community : 

We  are  an  old-fashioned  folk  in  Sweet  Auburn, — we 
go  to  church.  We  think  we  ought  to ;  besides,  we  can't 
help  it.  In  Boston,  they  tell  me,  you  expect  your  minister 
to  draw.  Our  country  parson  never  thinks  of  drawing; 
why  should  he? 

Mrs.  Gaskell's  "  Cranf  ord  "  lets  us  into  the  main  theme 
of  the  story  in  the  first  sentence: 

In  the  first  place,  Cranford  is  in  possession  of  the 
Amazons ;  all  the  holders  of  houses,  above  a  certain  rent, 
are  women. 

5.  These  examples,  taken  almost  at  random,  can  be 
reinforced  by  many  from  the  student's  reading.  In 
books,  introductions  of  considerable  length  are  some- 


The  Beginning  and  the  End     121 

times  necessary,  but  indirect,  roundabout,  pompous  in- 
troductions are  now  no  more  justified  by  good  use  than 
by  the  principles  of  composition.  A  writer  should  get 
at  his  subject  as  soon  as  possible. 

6.  The  end  of  a  composition  is  sometimes  no  less  trou- 
blesome than  the  beginning.  Even  after  he  has  planned 
a  theme  carefully,  the  student  may  find  it  difficult  to 
write  the  last  paragraph  so  that  he  can  take  proper 
leave  of  his  subject  and  his  readers.  Often  a  summary 
of  what  he  has  written  is  the  best  ending.  In  this  book, 
the  last  paragraph  of  a  chapter  is  usually  a  summary  of 
its  contents.  In  some  kinds  of  writing,  as  letters,  de- 
scriptions, stories,  this  form  of  ending  is  less  suitable 
than  in  expositions,  but  in  no  case  is  there  any  need  of 
writing  on  after  one  has  said  all  one  wants  to.  The  end 
of  a  theme  should  be  the  real  conclusion  of  the  subject. 
Abruptness  is  to  be  avoided,  but  abruptness  is  better 
than  tediousness.  Keep  for  the  last  of  the  feast  the 
best  of  your  wine,  the  point  of  your  story,  the  most 
conclusive  of  your  reasons,  the  most  entertaining  of 
your  incidents.  Then  you  will  have  a  good  place  at 
which  to  stop.  The  important  things  are  to  stop  when 
you  are  through  and  to  stop  at  an  interesting  place. 

7.  A  study  of  articles  in  the  best  newspapers  and 
magazines  will  furnish  many  examples  of  good  end- 
ings. The  article  on  "  The  Australian  Democracy," 
already  referred  to,  ends  with  one  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant of  its  statements  : 

The  Australians  are  not  tormented  by  a  race  question, 
they  have  never  had  any  civil  strife,  and  they  have  not  yet 


12  2  Longer  Themes 

come  into  contact  with  that  greatest  difficulty  of  large 
democracies,  the  difficulty  of  communicating  to  the  mass 
common  ideas  and  impulses. 

The  article  on  "  A  New  England  Hill  Town  "  simi- 
larly ends  with  what  the  writer  probably  regards  as  its 
most  important  conclusion: 

What  has  happened  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee  is  hap- 
pening in  New  England.  We  are  evolving  a  race  of  poor 
whites. 

The  last  paragraph  of  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Addison 
ends  with  a  summary  of  Addison's  abilities  and  ser- 
vices : 

Such  a  mark  of  national  respect  was  due  to  the  un- 
sullied statesman,  to  the  accomplished  scholar,  to  the  mas- 
ter of  pure  English  eloquence,  to  the  consummate  painter 
of  life  and  manners.  It  was  due,  above  all,  to  the  great 
satirist,  who  alone  knew  how  to  use  ridicule  without  abus- 
ing it,  who,  without  inflicting  a  wound,  effected  a  great 
social  reform,  and  who  reconciled  wit  and  virtue,  after  a 
long  and  disastrous  separation,  during  which  wit  had 
been  led  astray  by  profligacy,  and  virtue  by  fanaticism. 

8.  In  ending  or  beginning  themes  the  student  should 
follow  the  principles  of  composition  and  keep  his  reader 
in  mind.  Long  introductions  or  conclusions  are  out  of 
place  in  short  themes.  A  writer  may  begin  with  a  short 
statement  of  what  he  proposes  to  do,  or  with  something, 
perfectly  intelligible  to  the  reader,  that  will  lead  di- 
rectly to  the  subject.  He  may  end  with  his  most  tell- 
ing statement  or  with  a  brief  summary. 


The  Beginning  and  the  End     123 

EXERCISES 


1.  The  specimens  of  good  beginnings  and  endings 
handed  in  under  Exercise  6,  Chapter  9,  are  to  be  exam- 
ined and  criticized.  How  far  can  the  excellences  of 
each  be  accounted  for  by  the  discussion  in  the  text  of 
this  chapter  ?  How  far  do  they  fall  outside  of  the  dis- 
cussion in  the  text  ? 

2.  Themes  may  be  distributed  and  criticized  by  the 
class  according  to  the  following  outline.  The  first  and 
last  paragraphs  should  be  criticized,  and  also  the  first 
and  last  sentences. 

I.  The  Beginning. 

A.  Unity ;  is  it  closely  connected  with  the  subject? 

B.  Coherence ;  does  it  lead  directly  to  the  next 

paragraph  ? 

C.  Emphasis;  is  it  interesting? 

II.  The  End. 

A.  Unity ;  is  it  closely  connected  with  the  subject? 

B.  Coherence ;  does  it  follow  directly  from  the 

preceding  part? 

C.  Emphasis;  is  it  significant?  would  any  other 

part  of  the  theme  be  more  effective  at  the 
end? 

H  the  beginning  or  end  is  a  summary,  the  following 
outline  may  be  used : 

1.  Is  it  clear? 

2.  Is  it  brief? 

3.  Does  it  fairly  represent  the  theme? 


124  Longer  Themes 

3.  Compare  and  criticize  the  first  paragraphs  of  the 
following  novels :  "  Henry  Esmond,"  ''  Cranford," 
"The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,"  "The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables,"  "  Ivanhoe,"  "  Pride  and  Prejudice." 

Compare  and  criticize  the  first  chapters  of  the  same 
novels.  What  qualities  seem  especially  desirable  in  the 
beginning  of  a  novel? 

4.  The  following  are  specimens  of  opening  and  clos- 
ing sentences  of  compositions.  Some  are  good  and 
some  are  bad ;  criticize,  following  the  outline  in  Exer- 
cise 2. 

1.  A  magazine  article  on  '*  The  Trend  of  the  Century  " 
begins : 

Every  century  has  its  own  characteristics.  The  two  influences 
which  have  made  the  nineteenth  century  what  it  is  seem  to  me  to 
be  the  scientific  spirit  and  the  democratic  spirit. 

The  opening  paragraph  goes  on  to  state  other  character- 
istics of  the  century  and  ends  with  an  outline  of  the 
writer's  plan: 

I  want  to  trace,  if  I  can,  what  has  been  the  trend  of  this  re- 
markable century  in  the  domains  of  thought,  of  society,  of  com- 
merce, of  industry,  and  of  politics.  Especially  I  want  to  do  this 
as  it  concerns  life  in  the  United  States. 

2.  A  theme  of  700  words,  relating  the  rescue  of  a  boy 
who  was  in  danger  of  being  swept  over  Niagara  Falls, 
begins : 

Of  the  many  people  that  come  to  view  the  wonderful  Falls  of 
Niagara,  there  are  very  few  who  stop  to  think  of  its  awful  power 
and  the  feeling  of  terror  it  must  inspire  in  the  people  who  have 
lived  near  it  all  their  lives  and  have  seen  so  many  of  their  friends 
and  acquaintances  made  the  victims  of  its  terrible  strength. 


The  Beginning  and  the  End     125 

3.  A  theme  of  800  words,  entitled  "  The  Gold  Mines," 
begins : 

My  subject  naturally  suggests  some  favored  place  of  earth  in 
whose  dark  subterranean  vaults  the  glittering  product  of  the  ages 
lies  undisturbed.  Such  significance  does  not  attach  to  the  term  as 
I  shall  use  it. 

The  theme  ends : 

The  quiet  grandeur  of  the  whole  place,  the  perfect  harmony 
of  coloring,  the  fragrant  air,  the  cool  spring,  the  winding  creek, 
the  stately  hotel,  the  flowers  and  trees,  impress  upon  one  a  scene 
of  rare  beauty  and  perfection. 

4.  A  theme  of  600  words,  on  "  An  Old  Oak,"  ends  : 

Thus  it  stands  and  battles  with  the  storms.  What  a  history 
it  would  tell  us  if  its  branches  could  only  speak!  But  in  its 
whispered  messages  may  we  not  find  many  lessons  to  help  us 
through  the  stormy  as  well  as  the  pleasant  days  of  life? 

5.  A  theme  of  400  words,  describing  the  dwelling  of  a 
bachelor,  ends: 

With  these  few  glimpses  at  this  strange  abode,  having  made 
my  sale,  I  went  away,  feeling  that  I  had  bearded  the  bachelor  in 
his  den. 

6.  The  opening  and  closing  sentences  of  a  theme  on 
**  The  Circus  Parade  "  are : 

A  large  crowd  had  already  gathered  on  Main  street  to  see 
the  circus  parade,  but  by  pushing  along  and  elbowing  our  way, 
we  found  a  good  position  at  the  edge  of  the  walk. 

Bringing  up  the  rear  are  two  men  in  a  buggy,  who  throw  out 
handfuls  of  bills,  which  whirl  and  flutter  in  the  air  and  finally  fall 
in  white  showers  along  the  road. 

7.  A  theme  on  "  A  Child's  Playhouse  "  ends : 

Like  the  chambered  nautilus  I  have  passed  into  a  broader, 
statelier  dwelling.  But  I  cannot  seal  the  past ;  and  although  the 
dwelling  may  not  be  fit,  I  love  to  go  back  and  take  a  peep  at  it. 


126  Longer  Themes 

8.  The  last  two  sentences  of  Burke's  Speech  on  Concilia- 
tion (before  he  moves  the  resolution)  are: 

Let  us  get  an  American  revenue  as  we  have  got  an  American 
empire.  English  privileges  have  made  it  all  that  it  is;  English 
privileges  alone  virill  make  it  all  it  can  be. 

5.  Examine  the  opening  paragraphs  of  Macaulay's 
Essays  on  BoswelFs  Johnson,  Addison,  and  Milton. 
Determine  how  far  the  introduction  extends  in  each 
case  and  where  the  essay  proper  begins.  What  pur- 
pose did  these  introductions  serve  when  they  were  writ- 
ten ?  What  disadvantages  do  they  have  for  the  reader 
of  to-day? 

6.  Five  text-books  in  rhetoric  begin  in  the  following 
ways : 

1.  A  definition  of  rhetoric. 

2.  Directions  in  regard  to  spacing  and  underscoring. 

3.  Good  Use.     "  The  foundations  of  rhetoric  rest  upon 

grammar,  for  grammatical  purity  is  a  requisite  of 
good  writing." 

4.  Sciences  subsidiary  to  rhetoric. 

5.  Punctuation. 

What  advantages  can  you  see  in  each  beginning  ?  what 
disadvantages  ? 

7.  Would  it  have  been  better  to  begin  this  book  with 
a  definition  of  rhetoric  ?  What  reasons  can  you  suggest 
for  the  present  beginning  ? 

II 

8.  Class-room  Exercise.  ( Twenty  minutes. )  Write 
a  paragraph  on,  "  Difficulties  of  Developing  a  Plan 
into  a  Theme," 


The  Beginning  and  the  End     127 

g.    Write  the  opening  paragraph  of  a  theme  of  1200 
words,  which  is  to  tell  the  story  of  "  Ivanhoe  "  to  a 
person  who  has  never  read  the  novel. 
10.    Write  a  paragraph  or  two,  beginning  a  story  of 
your  own  invention. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  THEME 

I.  We  have  seen  how  to  collect  material  for  a  theme, 
how  to  form  it  into  a  plan,  and  how  to  care  for  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end.  We  may  now  consider  how  to 
develop  the  plan  into  a  readable  composition.  All  that 
has  been  said,  in  the  discussion  of  themes  of  two  or 
three  paragraphs,  of  the  different  methods  required  by 
the  four  kinds  of  prose  applies  as  well  to  longer  themes, 
and  all  the  methods  of  developing  a  topic  into  a  para- 
graph, discussed  in  Chapter  6,  are  of  use  in  trans- 
forming a  bare  outline  into  a  composition.  With  his 
plan  at  hand,  the  student  should  consider  what  is  the 
chief  aim  of  his  theme  and  of  each  main  division,  and 
avail  himself  accordingly  of  his  experience  in  writing 
short  expositions,  arguments,  descriptions,  and  narra- 
tives, and  he  should  make  constant  use  of  the  methods 
of  definition  and  explanation,  details  and  particulars, 
examples  and  illustrations,  comparisons  and  contrasts, 
proofs,  and  the  chronological  grouping  of  events  in  the 
amplification  of  his  topics.  In  long  themes,  he  should 
especially  remember  the  need  in  exposition  of  exact 
and  frequent  illustration,  the  superiority  in  argument 
of  persuasion  to  assertion,  the  suggestiveness  in  de- 

128 


The  Development  of  the  Theme   129 

scription  of  details  of  motion  or  feeling,  and  in  nar- 
rative the  value  of  suspense  and  climax  in  securing 
animation.  A  long  theme,  too,  whatever  its  general 
character,  usually  requires  the  service  of  several  kinds 
of  prose,  argument  standing  in  especial  need  of  expo- 
sition, and  narrative  of  brief  descriptive  details.  With- 
out, however,  reconsidering  in  detail  the  four  forms 
of  prose  or  the  development  of  paragraphs,  we  shall  in 
this  chapter  recall  some  things  that  have  been  already 
considered  and  note  what  aid  and  suggestion  the  prin- 
ciples of  composition  furnish  for  the  general  treatment 
of  the  material  outlined  in  the  plan. 
2.  It  is  not  enough  that  all  the  ideas  selected  for  the 
theme  be  closely  connected  with  the  subject;  their  con- 
nection must  be  made  perfectly  clear  to  the  reader. 
There  should  be  not  only  Unity  in  selection,  but  also 
Unity  in  expression.  In  Hawthorne's  sketch  of  "  The 
Old  Manse  "  he  tells  the  story  of  the  American  boy  who 
killed  a  helpless  wounded  British  soldier  after  the  Con- 
cord fight.  Now,  what  connection  has  that  story  with 
his  subject?  You  can  see  very  little  at  first  thought, 
but  if  you  will  turn  to  "  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse," 
you  will  see  that  Hawthorne  has  made  the  connection 
perfectly  clear  to  his  readers.  He  is  describing  his  life 
in  the  Old  Manse,  and  takes  an  imaginary  visitor  over 
the  house,  through  the  orchard  and  neighboring  battle- 
ground. Then  he  describes  the  bridge  and  monument, 
and  then  tells  the  story  related  to  him  by  the  poet  Low- 
ell, which,  he  says,  has  impressed  him  more  than  the 
history  of  the  battle.    After  he  has  briefly  related  the 


130  Longer  Themes 

story  he  dwells  on  the  haunting  effect  such  a  dreadful, 
unpremeditated  crime  must  have  had  on  the  poor  boy. 
We  see  that  the  story  is  just  the  kind  of  one  to  appeal 
to  Hawthorne's  imagination,  which  dwelt  so  often 
upon  the  sudden  conjunction  of  crime  and  innocence. 
No  part  of  the  sketch,  as  it  proves,  has  a  more  vital  and 
interesting  relation  to  the  subject — Hawthorne  at  the 
Old  Manse — than  has  this  story. 

3-  With  equal  care  any  writer  can  make  the  relation 
of  each  idea  to  his  subject  apparent.  In  the  plan  on 
page  112,  the  ideas  are  all  connected  with  one  subject, 
but  in  the  theme  the  writer  will  have  to  show  just  how 
an  open  fire  affects  his  enjoyment  of  reading,  and  that 
an  exciting  novel  is  a  still  more  important  factor.  In 
the  same  way  his  dislike  of  ghost  and  fairy  stories  may 
possibly  be  made  to  indicate  more  clearly  the  kind  of 
stories  he  does  enjoy,  and  thus  be  brought  into  connec- 
tion with  the  subject.  So,  in  descriptions,  all  details 
must  be  brought  into  relation  with  the  general  impres- 
sion the  writer  wishes  to  convey;  in  narratives,  all 
events  must  be  directed  to  the  objective  point;  in  expo- 
sitions, all  divisions  must  be  connected  with  the  expla- 
nation of  the  general  process  or  idea.  To  secure  Unity 
of  expression,  it  is  necessary  to  make  plain  the  relation 
of  each  detail,  not  to  things  in  general,  but  to  the  par- 
ticular subject. 

4'  The  best  negative  rule  to  observe  in  seeking  this 
Unity  of  expression  is  to  avoid  digressions,  and  the 
best  positive  rule  is  to  take  and  maintain  one  point  of 
view.     If  a  plan  is  well  made  and  strictly  followed, 


The  Development  of  the  Theme    131 

there  are  not  likely  to  be  many  digressions,  though  the 
temptation  to  wander  from  the  subject  and  introduce 
some  new  and  pleasing  ideas  may  often  need  resistance. 
The  point  of  view  has  already  been  mentioned  (page 
8y),  but  requires  more  attention.  By  it  we  mean  the 
position  of  the  writer  toward  the  subject ;  if  he  is  de- 
scribing an  object,  it  is  the  physical  position  from  which 
he  sees  that  object;  if  he  is  discussing  a  general  ques- 
tion, it  is  his  mental  attitude  toward  that  question — is 
he  giving  his  own  opinions,  or  is  he  recording  the  opin- 
ions of  some  one  else?  is  he  writing  as  the  advocate 
of  a  theory  or  as  its  critic?  The  treatment  of  any  sub- 
ject will  hence  be  determined  by  the  point  of  view.  In 
"  The  Old  Manse  "  Hawthorne's  point  of  view  is  that 
of  the  dweller  in  the  old  house,  who  is  showing  a  visitor 
about  the  place.  In  "  My  Enjoyment  in  Reading  "  the 
point  of  view  is  that  of  the  writer,  who  is  telling  his 
own  experiences. 

5-  In  a  narrative  the  point  of  view  is  that  of  the  per- 
son through  whose  eyes  the  events  and  people  of  the 
story  are  seen,  or  through  whose  feelings  they  are  in- 
terpreted. Sometimes  one  of  the  actors  in  the  story  is 
supposed  to  be  relating  it ;  thus  "  Kidnapped  "  is  osten- 
sibly written  by  David  Balfour,  the  chief  actor.  Even 
if  the  author  is  not  writing  in  the  name  of  any  of  his 
characters,  he  must  put  himself  in  their  places  and  see 
things  with  their  sympathies.  In  a  novel  the  point  of 
view  may  shift :  in  one  chapter  events  are  interpreted 
through  the  feelings  of  the  heroine;  in  the  next  we 
share  the  adventures  of  the  hero;  in  another  we  see 


132  Longer  Themes 

through  the  eyes  of  the  villain.  In  short  narratives, 
however,  there  is  great  gain  in  force  if  one  point  of 
view  can  be  maintained  throughout.  Thus  the  account 
of  a  runaway  accident  could  be  told  from  the  point  of 
view  of  a  bystander,  or  of  the  person  in  the  carriage, 
or  of  the  mounted  policeman  who  stopped  the  horse. 
The  same  events  can  be  told  with  different  effects  if 
different  points  of  view  are  taken,  and  the  selection  and 
maintenance  of  a  point  of  view  therefore  affect  the 
whole  character  of  a  narrative. 

6.  When  the  point  of  view  has  once  been  taken,  it 
must  not  be  changed  without  distinct  notice  to  the 
reader.  A  college  graduate  recently  wrote  a  theme  on 
the  interior  of  a  theater  as  seen  from  the  top  gallery, 
and  described  the  faces  of  the  people  in  the  front  rows 
of  the  orchestra.  One  can  imagine  the  difficulty  of  the 
reader  in  following  him.  So,  in  a  theme  on  "  My  En- 
joyment in  Reading,"  if  personal  experiences  are  mixed 
with  general  observations,  the  reader  will  have  difficulty 
in  disentangling  them.  Instead  of  devoting  his  atten- 
tion to  one  subject,  he  will  have  to  struggle  with  two  or 
three, — My  Enjoyment  in  Reading;  The  Pleasures 
People  in  General  Take  in  Reading;  What  We  Ought 
to  Read.  In  most  themes  the  student  will  write 
from  the  personal  point  of  view,  and  his  main  care 
will  be  to  keep  to  that.  One  further  caution,  however, 
must  not  be  overlooked.  In  order  to  inform  the  reader 
of  the  writer's  point  of  view,  there  is  rarely  need  of 
such  expressions  as,  "  I  think,"  "  it  seems  to  me,"  "  I 
believe,"  or  "  I  hope  to  show."    It  is  his  business  to  tell 


The  Development  of  the  Theme    133 

the  reader  what  he  thinks  or  beHeves  without  unneces- 
sary bowing  and  scraping. 

7.  The  principle  of  Coherence,  Hke  the  principle  of 
Unity,  is  useful  in  developing  the  plan  into  a  theme. 
It  requires  that  a  writer  stick  to  the  plan  announced, 
and  that  he  keep  the  plan  before  the  reader. 

8.  Any  indication  of  the  plan  to  the  reader  must  be 
strictly  followed.  If  a  theme  begins,  "  The  chief  needs 
of  my  school  are  a  lunch-room,  an  assembly  hall,  more 
books  in  the  library,  and  a  gymnasium,"  it  must  treat 
of  these  needs  in  that  order.  A  writer  may  find  reason 
to  change  his  plan  while  writing;  if  so,  any  statements 
that  he  has  made  in  regard  to  it  must  be  altered  to  fit 
his  new  purpose.  The  plan  should  never  be  purposely 
hidden  from  the  reader.  In  many  cases,  especially  in 
expositions  and  arguments,  it  should  be  stated  dis- 
tinctly, and  the  reader  should  receive  plenty  of  indica- 
tions of  the  direction  in  which  the  writer  wishes  him  to 
go.  In  long  compositions,  summaries  and  transition 
paragraphs  are  useful  in  pointing  out  the  road.  In  this 
chapter,  for  example,  the  writer  is  desirous  that  the 
reader  see  the  connection  between  the  ideas.  The  first 
paragraph  is  consequently  transitional,  stating  briefly 
what  is  to  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  and  its  relations 
to  what  has  preceded.  It  tells  the  reader  how  far  he 
has  gone  and  whither  he  is  going.  The  seventh  para- 
graph is  another  guide-post,  which  points  out  that  the 
discussion  of  Unity  is  finished  and  that  of  Coherence  is 
to  begin.  The  last  paragraph  of  each  chapter  so  far 
has  been  a  summary  of  its  contents. 


134  Longer  Themes 

9'  In  themes  of  a  few  pages,  transitional  and  sum- 
marizing paragraphs  are  too  cumbersome.  The  work 
of  guiding  the  reader  on  his  way  can  be  done  by  con- 
necting sentences  or  phrases.  In  Chapter  lo  of  this 
book,  the  first  five  paragraphs  discuss  the  beginning  of 
a  theme ;  the  last  three  paragraphs,  the  end ;  and  these 
two  divisions  are  connected  by  the  sentence  on  page 
121,  "The  end  of  a  composition  is  sometimes  no  less 
troublesome  than  the  beginning."  In  Chapter  4  the 
transition  from  The  Subject  to  The  Title  is  accom- 
plished in  the  sentence  on  page  32,  "  After  a  writer 
has  fitted  his  subject  to  his  theme,  he  must  find  a  title." 
In  the  present  chapter  the  transition  from  Unity  to 
Coherence  has  already  been  emphasized;  so  when,  in 
the  next  paragraph,  a  change  is  made  from  Coherence 
to  Emphasis,  no  further  guide  will  be  needed  by  the 
reader  than  the  opening  words,  "  The  principle  of  Em- 
phasis." The  connectives  between  the  divisions  of  a 
theme  may  be  brief,  but  they  should  be  sufficient  to  en- 
able a  reader  to  follow  the  succession  of  ideas  easily 
and  directly. 

10.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  can  be  followed  in 
the  general  treatment  of  the  subject  by  carrying  out 
the  suggestions  already  made  in  regard  to  planning  the 
theme  for  proportion  and  position  of  parts.  If  the 
most  important  idea  is  to  come  last  and  to  occupy  one 
third  of  the  total  space,  it  will  be  necessary  to  pay  an 
extra  amount  of  attention  to  the  treatment  of  that  di- 
vision. The  writer  must  obtain  a  considerable  amount 
of  material, — incidents,  illustrations,  or  proofs,  as  the 


The  Development  of  the  Theme    135 

case  may  require, — and  he  must  put  a  large  share  of  at- 
tention on  its  expression.  The  material  of  this  para- 
graph will  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words  in  the  closing 
paragraph  of  the  chapter,  but  here  it  is  amplified  in 
order  that  it  may  have  more  weight  with  the  reader. 
Our  first  inclinations,  indeed,  often  lead  us  to  pass  over 
hastily  the  most  important  part  of  a  subject  because  it 
is  familiar  to  us.  To  secure  Emphasis,  however,  we 
must  concentrate  our  attention  and  effort  on  what  we 
wish  most  to  impress  upon  the  reader. 
II.  In  narratives  attention  should  be  concentrated  on 
the  objective  point,  the  event  to  which  the  others  lead. 
Climax  should  be  used  when  possible,  the  events  in- 
creasing in  interest,  and  the  moment  of  highest  interest 
coming  at  the  end.  In  many  narratives,  however,  it  is 
not  the  final  but  an  intermediate  event  which  is  the  most 
important  and  the  crisis  of  the  story.  In  telling  the 
Bible  story  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  writers  might  take 
various  points  of  view  and  enlarge  the  narrative  in  va- 
rious ways,  but  they  would  all  fail  unless  they  made 
impressive  the  moment  when  "  Abraham  stretched 
forth  his  hand  and  took  the  knife  to  slay  his  son."  The 
most  interesting  incident  or  the  critical  moment  of  a 
story  may  be  made  impressive  by  various  means.  The 
importance  of  the  ball  game  in  a  theme  on  a  picnic 
might  be  indicated  by  a  detailed  account;  the  critical 
moment  of  an  adventure  might  be  emphasized  by  keep- 
ing the  reader  in  complete  suspense  as  to  the  outcome 
up  to  that  moment.  Elaboration  may  not  be  the  best 
means  of  securing  Emphasis;  the  sentence  just  quoted 


136  Longer  Themes 

from  the  Bible  is  impressive  from  its  simplicity.  By 
one  means  or  other,  by  elaboration  or  by  power  of  style, 
by  climax  or  suspense,  or  by  all  these,  the  writer  should 
seek  to  make  the  important  event  or  moment  of  his  nar- 
rative the  one  that  will  be  most  vividly  realized  by  the 
reader. 

12.  In  developing  a  plan  into  a  composition,  a  writer 
should  seek  Unity  of  Expression  by  indicating  the  con- 
nection of  each  detail  to  the  subject,  by  avoiding  digres- 
sions, and  by  keeping  to  one  point  of  view.  A  point  of 
view  may  be  the  writer's  mental  attitude  toward  a  sub- 
ject, and  in  narratives  he  may  assume  the  point  of  view 
of  one  of  the  participants  in  the  action.  He  should  seek 
Coherence  by  following  faithfully  a  plan  and  by  mak- 
ing the  various  steps  evident  to  the  reader  by  means  of 
summarizing  and  transitional  paragraphs,  sentences, 
and  phrases ;  and  he  should  seek  Emphasis  by  centering 
his  attention  on  the  places  where  he  most  desires  the 
reader's  attention  to  rest. 


EXERCISES 

I 

1.  Note  all  the  connecting  sentences  in  Chapter  5. 

2.  The  following  topics  may  suggest  others  for  narra- 
tives with  special  points  of  view. 

I.    The  Prodigal  Son ; — from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
elder  brother. 


The  Development  of  the  Theme    137 

2.  Our  Straw  Ride; — from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
driver. 

3.  Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware; — as  related 
by  one  of  the  soldiers. 

4.  A  Fox  Hunt ; — from  the  point  of  view  of  the  fox. 

3'  Each  of  the  following  topics  may  be  treated — first 
in  a  fifteen-minute  theme  written  in  class,  when  the 
point  of  view  and  the  most  important  part  should  be  in- 
dicated ;  then  in  a  theme  of  six  hundred  words  written 
at  home. 

I.  The  Battle  of  Manila.  2.  The  Relief  of  Pekin.  3. 
The  Last  Story  that  I  Read.  4.  A  Country  Village.  5. 
The  First  Night  in  Camp.  6.  The  Battle  of  San  Juan 
Hill.  7.  How  I  Would  Teach  History.  8.  How  to  Make 
a  Garden.  9.  The  Naval  Battle  off  Port  Arthur.  10.  The 
Night  of  a  Presidential  Election. 

4-  Froude's  account  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada furnishes  a  good  example  of  historical  narrative. 
One  of  the  longest  paragraphs  tells  of  the  attack  of 
Drake  and  Hawkins  on  the  Armada.  This  is  reproduced 
here.  Read  it  carefully  and  then  answer  the  following 
questions  as  fully  as  you  can.  ( i )  Why  is  this  portion 
of  the  narrative  developed  so  elaborately?  (2)  Why 
is  it  put  into  a  single  paragraph?  (3)  In  the  course 
of  the  paragraph  these  matters  are  discussed:  the  op- 
portunity offered  Drake;  criticisms  of  the  Duke  of  Me- 
dina Sidonia ;  the  superiority  of  the  English  ships  over 
the  Spanish;  the  bravery  of  the  Spaniards.  How  does 
the  treatment  of  these  matters  neglect  or  promote  Unity 
of  Expression?    (4)   Note  the  sentences  giving  an  ac- 


13B  Longer  Themes 

count  of  the  general  course  of  the  battle;  those  nar- 
rating particular  incidents ;  those  devoted  to  exposition. 
Make  an  outline  showing  the  way  in  which  these  ele- 
ments are  intermingled.  Is  the  arrangement  coherent  ? 
What  portion  of  the  paragraph  deals  with  the  English 
attack?  what  with  the  Spanish  defense?  How  is  the 
transition  from  the  one  to  the  other  managed  ?  ( 5)  In 
an  account  of  an  English  victory,  why  is  so  much  space 
given  to  describing  the  valor  of  the  Spaniards?  Is  this 
in  accord  with  the  principle  of  Emphasis?  (6)  Is  any 
use  made  of  climax? 

It  was  now  or  never  for  England.  The  scene  of  the 
action  which  was  to  decide  the  future  of  Europe  was  be- 
tween Calais  and  Dunkirk,  a  few  miles  off  shore,  and 
within  sight  of  Parma's  Camp.  There  was  no  more 
manoeuvring  for  the  weather-gage,  no  more  fighting  at 
long  range.  Drake  dashed  straight  upon  his  prey  as  the 
falcon  stoops  upon  its  quarry.  A  chance  had  fallen  to 
him  which  might  never  return;  not  for  the  vain  distinc- 
tion of  carrying  prizes  into  English  ports,  not  for  the  ray 
of  honour  which  would  fall  on  him  if  he  could  carry  off 
the  sacred  banner  itself  and  hang  it  in  the  Abbey  at  West- 
minster, but  a  chance  so  to  handle  the  Armada  that  it 
should  never  be  seen  again  in  English  waters,  and  deal 
such  a  blow  on  Philip  that  the  Spanish  Empire  should 
reel  with  it.  The  English  ships  had  the  same  superiority 
over  the  galleons  which  steamers  have  now  over  sailing 
vessels.  They  had  twice  the  speed;  they  could  lie  two 
points  nearer  to  the  wind.  Sweeping  round  them  at  ca- 
ble's length,  crowding  them  in  one  upon  the  other,  yet 
never  once  giving  them  a  chance  to  grapple,  they  hurled 
in  their  cataracts  of  round  shot  Short  as  was  the  pow- 
der supply,  there  was  no  sparing  it  that  morning.  The 
hours  went  on,  and  still  the  battle  raged,  if  battle  it  could 
be  called  where  the  blows  were  all  dealt  on  one  side  and 


The  Development  of  the  Theme    139 

the  suffering  was  all  on  the  other.  Never  on  sea  or  land 
did  the  Spaniards  show  themselves  worthier  of  their  great 
name  than  on  that  day.  But  from  the  first  they  could  do 
nothing.  It  was  said  afterward  in  Spain  that  the  Duke 
showed  the  white  feather,  that  he  charged  his  pilot  to  keep 
him  out  of  harm's  way,  that  he  shut  himself  up  in  his 
cabin,  buried  in  woolpacks,  and  so  on.  The  Duke  had 
faults  enough,  but  poltroonery  was  not  one  of  them.  He, 
who  till  he  entered  the  English  Channel  had  never  been 
in  action  on  sea  or  land,  found  himself,  as  he  said,  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  furious  engagement  recorded  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  As  to  being  out  of  harm's  way,  the 
standard  at  his  masthead  drew  the  hottest  of  the  fire  upon 
him.  The  San  Martin's  timbers  were  of  oak  and  a  foot 
thick,  but  the  shot,  he  said,  went  through  them  enough  to 
shatter  a  rock.  Her  deck  was  a  slaughter-house ;  half  his 
company  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  no  more  would 
have  been  heard  or  seen  of  the  San  Martin  or  her  com- 
mander had  not  Oquendo  and  De  Leyva  pushed  in  to  the 
rescue  and  enabled  him  to  creep  away  under  their  cover. 
He  himself  saw  nothing  more  of  the  action  after  this.  The 
smoke,  he  said,  was  so  thick  that  he  could  make  out  no- 
thing, even  from  his  masthead.  But  all  round  it  was  but 
a  repetition  of  the  same  scene.  The  Spanish  shot  flew 
high,  as  before,  above  the  low  English  hulls,  and  they 
were  themselves  helpless  butts  to  the  English  guns.  And 
it  is  noticeable  and  supremely  creditable  to  them  that  not 
a  single  galleon  struck  her  colours.  One  of  them,  after  a 
long  duel  with  an  Englishman,  was  on  the  point  of  sink- 
ing. An  English  officer,  admiring  the  courage  which  the 
Spaniards  had  shown,  ran  out  upon  his  bowsprit,  told 
them  that  they  had  done  all  which  became  men,  and  urged 
them  to  surrender  and  save  their  lives.  For  answer  they 
cursed  the  English  as  cowards  and  chickens  because  they 
refused  to  close.  The  officer  was  shot.  His  fall  brought 
a  last  broadside  on  them,  which  finished  the  work.  They 
went  down,  and  the  water  closed  over  them.  Rather  death 
to  the  soldiers  of  the  Cross  than  surrender  to  a  heretic. 
James  Anthony  Froude:  English  Seamen  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century. 


140  Longer  Themes 

5'  In  a  newspaper  editorial  or  a  magazine  article 
(those  selected  in  Exercise  3,  Chapter  9,  may  be  used), 
determine  on  what  thought  the  writer  wished  to  put  the 
greatest  stress.     How  does  he  develop  it  ? 

Determine  what  is  the  most  important  part  of  a  short 
story  in  a  recent  magazine.  How  is  its  importance  in- 
dicated ? 

6.  Criticize  themes  assigned  to  you  according  to  the 
following  outline. 


I. 

The 

Plan. 

Unity. 
Coherence^ 

2. 

3- 

Emphasis. 
The  Beginning. 
The  End. 

4. 

The 

Development. 

Unity. 
Coherence. 

Emphasis. 

7.  What  is  the  point  of  view  of  "  Locksley  Hall," 
"  The  Lotos  Eaters,"  "  The  Princess,"  ''  The  Spectator 
Papers,"  "Henry  Esmond"? 

8.  Note  some  instances  of  suspense  and  of  climax  in 
"  Silas  Marner,"  "  The  Princess,"  "  Ivanhoe,"  "  Henry 
Esmond,"  a  recent  magazine  story. 

II 

9.  From  your  observation  of  paragraphing  in  this 
book  or  elsewhere,  what  rules  or  suggestions  can  you 
make  for  the  division  of  a  long  exposition  into  para- 
graphs ?  In  what  ways,  if  any,  should  the  paragraphing 
of  a  narrative  differ  from  that  of  an  exposition  ?  How 
should  a  conversation  be  divided  into  paragraphs  ? 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  THEME  INTO  PARAGRAPHS 

1.  We  have  already  studied  the  paragraph  as  a  unit ; 
now  we  must  understand  clearly  its  functions  as  one  of 
the  divisions  of  a  theme.  The  relation  between  a  para- 
graph and  a  whole  composition  is  this:  a  whole  com- 
position deals  with  one  main  idea,  concerning  which  it 
presents  a  number  of  subordinate  ideas;  a  paragraph 
treats  of  one  of  these  subordinate  ideas,  which  it  ampli- 
fies and  illustrates.  A  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sen- 
tences dealing  with  a  single  subject;  a  whole  composi- 
tion is  a  group  of  paragraphs  dealing  with  a  larger 
subject. 

2.  Just  as  space  is  left  between  words,  and  a  larger 
space  between  sentences,  so  a  still  larger  break  is 
made  between  paragraphs.  In  writing,  a  new  para- 
graph is  given  a  new  line  and  is  indented;  that  is, 
the  first  word  begins  an  inch  to  the  right  of  the  mar- 
gin. A  succession  of  pages  without  any  indention  of- 
fers no  indication  to  the  eye  of  the  divisions  of  thought. 
A  succession  of  pages  with  a  great  many  indentions 
produces  a  disconnected,  spasmodic  effect  on  the  eye 
and  the  mind.  The  only  case  in  English  in  which  very 
short  paragraphs  are  used  is  in  conversation,  where  a 

141 


142  Longer  Themes 

change  in  the  speaker  is  indicated  by  a  new  paragraph. 
The  following  passage  would  be  unintelligible  without 
such  division. 

The  colonel  and  Cross] ay  lounged  over  the  garden. 

"  And  now,"  said  the  colonel,  "  we  '11  see  if  we  can't  ar- 
range a  meeting  between  you  and  Miss  Middleton. 
You  're  a  lucky  fellow,  for  she  's  always  thinking  of  you." 

"  I  know  I  am  always  thinking  of  her,"  said  Cross  jay. 

*'  If  ever  you  're  in  a  scrape,  she  's  the  person  you  must 
go  to." 

*'  Yes,  if  I  know  where  she  is ! " 

"  Why,  generally  she  '11  be  at  the  Hall." 

There  was  no  reply:  Crossjay's  dreadful  secret  jumped 
to  his  throat.  He  certainly  was  a  weaker  lock  for  being 
full  of  breakfast. 

"  I  want  to  see  Mr.  Whitford  so  much,"  he  said. 

"  Something  to  tell  him?  " 

"  I  don't  know  what  to  do :  I  don't  understand  it !  " 
The  secret  wriggled  to  his  mouth.  He  swallowed  it  down. 
"  Yes,  I  want  to  talk  to  Mr.  Whitford." 

George  Meredith  :  The  Egoist. 

In  general  the  length  of  paragraphs  varies  with  their 
subjects  and  purposes.  Ordinarily  fifty  words  make  a 
very  short  paragraph,  five  hundred  a  very  long  one ;  in 
themes,  the  average  should  be  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  words. 

3.  A  paragraph  relieves  the  reader's  attention ;  it  also 
directs  his  attention  to  the  divisions  of  the  theme.  An 
indention  on  the  page  marks  a  change  in  the  thought, 
a  passing  from  one  subordinate  idea  to  another.  In 
planning  a  theme  it  is  usually  possible  to  plan  for  the 
paragraphs;  this  is,  in  fact,  necessary  to  the  comple- 
tion of  a  good  working  plan.     In  a  theme  on  "  What 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      143 

Our  School  Needs,"  a  paragraph  might  be  devoted  to 
each  of  the  four  needs ;  or,  if  the  need  of  a  gymnasium 
were  to  be  treated  more  fully  than  the  others,  it  might 
be  given  two  paragraphs.  The  question,  then,  would 
be,  how  to  divide  the  topic.  Possibly  the  writer  wishes 
to  speak  of  the  need  of  a  gymnasium  ( i )  to  promote 
exercise  and  good  health  among  the  students  and  (2) 
to  encourage  school  athletics;  if  so,  each  of  these  ideas 
may  be  developed  into  a  paragraph.  In  the  plan  of  the 
theme  on  "  My  Enjoyment  in  Reading,"  on  page  112, 
perhaps  the  last  division  might  occupy  two  paragraphs. 
The  plan  in  its  final  form,  with  rough  estimates  of  the 
length  of  the  paragraphs,  would  then  be  as  follows : 

Subject.    My  Enjoyment  in  Reading. 

Title.    How  I  Read  a  Book. 

Plan: 

1.  {Paragraph  of  50  words,)  I  enjoy  reading  best 
on  a  winter  night  when  I  can  sit  by  the  fire  with  a  plate 
of  apples  by  my  side. 

2.  {Paragraph  of  i§o  zvords.)  Then  I  must  have  an 
exciting  story,  not  of  ghosts,  or  fairies,  or  love,  but  of 
adventures  and  fights  and  hair-breadth  escapes;  just  such 
a  book,  in  fact,  as  **  Treasure  Island." 

3.  {Paragraph  of  100  words.)  Under  these  condi- 
tions I  become  absorbed  in  the  story  and  gradually  forget 
all  my  surroundings. 

4.  {Paragraph  of  200  zvords.)  Soon  I  am  in  the 
hero's  place,  going  through  all  his  trials  and  escapes,  and 
sharing  all  his  fear  and  joy. 

4.  In  every  case  the  theme  should  be  divided  into  para- 
graphs corresponding  to  the  main  divisions  of  thought. 
A  main  division  should  be  given  at  least  one  paragraph ; 
if  it  is  long  it  may  be  divided  into  subordinate  sections, 


144  Longer  Themes 

to  each  of  which  a  paragraph  may  be  given.  The 
writer  must  always  ask,  how  can  I  best  separate  my 
theme  into  paragraphs  which  shall  indicate  to  the 
reader  my  plan  ? 

5.  It  will  be  noticed  that  our  plan  now  consists  of 
four  complete  sentences  which  make  up  a  short  para- 
graph. That  stands  as  an  outline  for  a  short  theme, 
and  each  of  the  four  sentences  stands  as  an  outline 
for  a  paragraph.  This  is  a  good  way  to  plan  a  theme, 
and  it  indicates  just  the  relation  of  a  paragraph  to  a 
whole  composition.  What  a  sentence  is  to  a  para- 
graph, a  paragraph  is  to  a  whole  composition. 

6.  It  will  also  be  noticed  in  our  plan  that  certain 
words  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  three  sentences  add 
nothing  to  the  thought,  but  serve  as  connectives. 
These  words,  "  Then,"  "  Under  these  circumstances," 
"  Soon,"  knit  the  sentences  into  a  paragraph.  In  a 
similar  way  connectives  will  be  needed  to  knit  the  para- 
graphs into  a  theme.  In  Chapter  1 1  we  saw  the  use- 
fulness of  connective  sentences  in  indicating  the  plan  to 
the  reader  and  marking  the  transition  from  one  divi- 
sion to  another.  Naturally  these  connective  sentences 
come  at  the  beginnings  of  paragraphs;  the  first  sen- 
tences of  the  paragraphs  of  a  theme  consequently  often 
serve  to  mark  plainly  the  divisions  and  progress  of 
ideas.  In  Macaulay's  "  Essay  on  Addison,"  the  first 
sentences  of  ten  paragraphs  describing  Addison's  Euro- 
pean tour  thus  form  a  good  outline  of  that  part  of 
the  essay,  although  there  are  few  words  used  which 
are  merely  connectives. 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      145 

1.  While  Addison  was  in  Paris,  an  event  took  place 
which  made  that  capital  a  disagreeable  residence  for  an 
Englishman  and  a  Whig. 

2.  In  December,  I7(X),  he  embarked  at  Marseilles. 

3.  At  Genoa,  still  ruled  by  her  own  doge,  and  by  the 
nobles  whose  names  were  inscribed  on  her  Book  of  Gold, 
Addison  made  a  short  stay. 

4.  On  his  way  from  Venice  to  Rome,  he  was  drawn 
some  miles  out  of  the  beaten  road  by  a  wish  to  see  the 
smallest  independent  state  in  Europe. 

5.  At  Rome  Addison  remained  on  his  first  visit  only 
long  enough  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  St.  Peter's  and  of  the 
Pantheon. 

6.  Naples  was  then  destitute  of  what  are  now,  per- 
haps, its  chief  attractions. 

7.  From  Naples,  Addison  returned  to  Rome  by  sea, 
along  the  coast  which  his  favourite  Virgil  had  celebrated. 

8.  It  was  not  till  the  latter  end  of  October  that  he  tore 
himself  away  from  the  masterpieces  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern art  which  are  collected  in  the  city  so  long  the  mistress 
of  the  world. 

9.  Addison  gave  some  time  to  Florence,  and  especially 
to  the  sculptures  in  the  Museum,  which  he  preferred  even 
to  those  of  the  Vatican. 

10.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  the  eternal  snow  that  he 
composed  his  Epistle  to  his  friend  Montagu,  now  Lord 
Halifax. 


7-  Macaulay's  plan  of  treating  Addison's  tour  chron- 
ologically and  devoting  one  paragraph  to  each  stage  is 
thus  made  obvious  to  the  most  hasty  reader.  In  a 
similar  way,  the  opening  sentences  of  the  paragraphs 
of  Chapter  4  of  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  "  are  guide- 
posts  to  point  out  to  the  reader  the  stages  and  direction 
of  his  journey.  The  subject-matter  of  each  paragraph 
is  clearly  indicated  at  the  start — the  location  of  the 


146  Longer  Themes 

new  home,  the  house  itself,  what  the  family  did  through 
the  day,  what  they  did  in  the  evening,  what  they  did 
on  Sunday,  an  incident  of  the  first  Sunday — and  the 
last  paragraph  is  given  in  full  because  it  illustrates 
admirably  how  to  end  a  theme. 

1.  The  place  of  our  retreat  was  in  a  little  neighbour- 
hood, consisting  of  farmers,  who  tilled  their  own  grounds, 
and  were  equal  strangers  to  opulence  and  poverty. 

2.  Our  little  habitation  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  a 
sloping  hill,  sheltered  with  a  beautiful  underwood  behind, 
and  a  prattling  river  before ;  on  one  side  a  meadow,  on  the 
other  a  green. 

3.  The  little  republic  to  which  I  gave  laws,  was  regu- 
lated in  the  following  manner : 

4.  As  we  rose  with  the  sun,  so  we  never  pursued  our 
labours  after  it  was  gone  down.     .     .     . 

5.  When  Sunday  came,  it  was  indeed  a  day  of  finery, 
which  all  my  sumptuary  edicts  could  not  restrain. 

6.  The  first  Sunday,  in  particular,  their  behaviour 
served  to  mortify  me. 

7.  This  remonstrance  had  the  proper  effect :  they  went 
with  great  composure,  that  very  instant,  to  change  their 
dress ;  and  the  next  day  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding 
my  daughters,  at  their  own  request,  employed  in  cutting 
up  their  trains  into  Sunday  waistcoats  for  Dick  and  Bill, 
the  two  little  ones ;  and,  what  was  still  more  satisfactory, 
the  gowns  seemed  improved  by  this  curtailing. 

8.  Another  selection  will  indicate  the  method  of  divid- 
ing a  narrative  into  paragraphs. 

The  first  peep  of  morning,  then,  showed  us  this  horrible 
place,  and  I  could  see  Alan  knit  his  brow. 

"  This  is  no  place  for  you  and  me,"  he  said.  "  This  is  a 
place  they  're  bound  to  watch," 

And  with  that  he  ran  harder  than  ever  down  to  the 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      147 

water-side,  in  a  part  where  the  river  was  split  in  two 
among  the  rocks.  It  went  through  with  a  horrid  thun- 
dering that  made  my  belly  quake;  and  there  hung  over 
the  lynn  a  little  mist  of  spray.  Alan  looked  neither  to 
the  right  nor  to  the  left,  but  jumped  clean  upon  the  middle 
rock  and  fell  there  on  his  hands  and  knees  to  check  him- 
self, for  that  rock  was  small  and  he  might  have  pitched 
over  on  the  far  side.  /  had  scarce  time  to  measure  the 
distance  or  to  understand  the  peril  before  I  had  followed 
him,  and  he  had  caught  and  stopped  me. 

So  there  we  stood,  side  by  side  on  a  small  rock  slippery 
with  spray,  a  far  broader  leap  in  front  of  us,  and  the  river 
dinning  upon  all  sides.  When  I  saw  where  I  was  there 
came  on  me  a  deadly  sickness  of  fear,  and  I  put  my  hand 
over  my  eyes.  Alan  took  me  and  shook  me ;  I  saw  he  was 
speaking,  but  the  roaring  of  the  falls  and  the  trouble  of 
my  mind  prevented  me  from  hearing ;  only  I  saw  his  face 
was  red  with  anger,  and  that  he  stamped  upon  the  rock. 
The  same  look  showed  me  the  water  raging  by  and  the 
mist  hanging  in  the  air;  and  with  that,  I  covered  my  eyes 
again  and  shuddered. 

The  next  minute  Alan  had  set  the  brandy  bottle  to  my 
lips  and  forced  me  to  drink  about  a  gill,  which  sent  the 
blood  into  my  head  again.  Then,  putting  his  hands  to  his 
mouth  and  his  mouth  to  my  ear,  he  shouted,  "Hang  or 
drown!"  and  turning  his  back  upon  me,  leaped  over  the 
farther  branch  of  the  stream,  and  landed  safe. 

I  was  now  alone  upon  the  rock,  which  gave  me  the  more 
room;  the  brandy  was  singing  in  my  ears;  I  had  this 
good  example  fresh  before  me,  and  just  wit  enough  to  see 
that  if  I  did  not  leap  at  once,  I  should  never  leap  at  all.  I 
bent  low  on  my  knees  and  flung  myself  forth,  with  that 
kind  of  anger  of  despair  which  has  sometimes  stood  me 
in  stead  of  courage.  Sure  enough,  it  was  but  my  hands 
that  reached  the  full  length;  these  slipped,  caught  again, 
slipped  again;  and  I  was  sliddering  back  into  the  lynn, 
when  Alan  seized  me,  first  by  the  hair,  then  by  the  collar, 
and  with  a  great  strain  dragged  me  into  safety. 

Never  a  word  said  he,  but  set  off  running  again  for  his 


148  Longer  Themes 


life,  and  I  must  stagger  to  my  feet  and  run  after  him.  I 
had  been  weary  before,  but  now  I  was  sick  and  bruised, 
and  partly  drunken  with  the  brandy ;  I  kept  stumbling  as 
I  ran,  I  had  a  stitch  that  came  near  to  overmaster  me; 
and  when  at  last  Alan  paused  under  a  great  rock  that  stood 
there  among  a  number  of  others,  it  was  none  too  soon  for 
David  Balfour. 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson  :  Kidnapped. 

9.  In  these  paragraphs  we  have  a  succession  of  events 
related  in  chronological  order.  At  first  thought  there 
seems  little  need  of  paragraph  structure,  and  little  pos- 
sibility of  following  the  principles  of  Unity  and  Em- 
phasis. Yet  note  the  paragraph  divisions.  The  first 
is  transitional,  the  second  a  speech.  The  third  includes 
the  events  until  Alan  and  David  had  both  jumped  upon 
the  rock;  the  fourth  tells  what  happened  on  the  rock; 
the  fifth,  Alan's  farewell  and  jump ;  the  sixth,  David's 
jump;  the  seventh,  the  continuation  of  their  flight. 
Thus  each  paragraph  has  a  topic ;  each  has  Unity,  since 
it  deals  with  a  closely  connected  series  of  events;  and 
Emphasis,  since  it  stops  at  an  important  instant.  The 
closing  sentences  of  these  paragraphs,  italicized  in  our 
selection,  give  us  the  most  important  events  and  really 
contain  the  topics  of  the  paragraphs.  Each  paragraph 
follows  the  usual  method  of  development  in  purely  nar- 
rative paragraphs  (see  page  60),  and  presents  a  series 
of  events  in  chronological  order,  leading  up  to  some 
event  of  special  importance.  In  a  narrative  theme  the 
division  into  paragraphs  must  correspond  to  the  im- 
portant divisions  of  the  action. 

10.  In  this  chapter  we  have  viewed  the  paragraph  as 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      149 

a  part  of  a  longer  composition.  It  is  marked  by  inden- 
tion and  should  correspond  to  a  division  of  the  subject. 
What  a  sentence  is  to  a  paragraph,  a  paragraph  is  to 
a  whole  composition.  In  planning  a  theme,  therefore, 
we  can  put  our  outline  in  the  form  of  a  paragraph,  each 
sentence  of  which  shall  be  developed  into  a  paragraph 
in  the  completed  theme.  The  opening  sentences  of  the 
paragraphs  of  a  theme  can  be  utilized  to  indicate  to  the 
reader  the  general  plan,  the  connection  of  ideas,  and 
the  correspondence  of  each  paragraph  to  a  division  of 
the  subject. 

EXERCISES 


1.  What  are  the  main  divisions  of  this  chapter  ?  How 
many  paragraphs  are  given  to  each  ?  What  is  the  sub- 
ject of  each  paragraph  ? 

2.  Examine  the  first  sentences  of  the  paragraphs  in 
this  chapter.  Do  any  connect  paragraphs  ?  Do  any  in- 
dicate the  subjects  of  paragraphs? 

3-  Write  out  a  synopsis  of  Chapter  8,  giving  a  com- 
plete sentence  to  each  paragraph,  except  the  last.  By 
the  addition  of  connectives,  form  these  sentences  into 
a  coherent  paragraph. 

4*  Divide  the  following  extract  from  "  Gulliver's 
Travels  "  into  three  paragraphs.  In  Swift's  day  much 
less  attention  was  paid  to  division  into  paragraphs 
than  at  the  present  time. 


150  Longer  Themes 

When  this  Adventure  was  at  an  end,  I  came  back  out  of 
my  House,  having  occasion  for  fresh  Air.  The  Emperor 
was  already  descended  from  the  Tower,  and  advancing  on 
Horseback  towards  me,  which  had  hked  to  have  cost  him 
dear;  for  the  Beast,  though  very  well  trained,  yet  wholly 
unused  to  such  a  Sight,  which  appeared  as  if  a  Mountain 
moved  before  him,  reared  up  on  his  hinder  Feet :  But  that 
Prince,  who  is  an  excellent  Horseman,  kept  his  Seat,  till 
his  Attendants  ran  in,  and  held  the  Bridle,  while  his  Maj- 
esty had  time  to  dismount.  When  he  alighted,  he  sur- 
veyed me  round  with  great  Admiration,  but  kept  without 
the  length  of  my  Chain.  He  ordered  his  Cooks  and  But- 
lers, who  were  already  prepared  to  give  me  Victuals  and 
Drink,  which  they  pushed  forward  in  a  sort  of  Vehicles 
upon  Wheels  till  I  could  reach  them.  I  took  these  Vehi- 
cles, and  soon  emptied  them  all;  twenty  of  them  were 
filled  with  Meat,  and  ten  with  Liquor,  each  of  the  former 
afforded  me  two  or  three  good  Mouthfuls,  and  I  emptied 
the  Liquor  of  ten  Vessels,  which  was  contained  in  earthen 
Vials,  into  one  Vehicle,  drinking  it  off  at  a  Draught,  and 
so  I  did  with  the  rest.  The  Empress,  and  young  Princes 
of  the  Blood  of  both  Sexes,  attended  by  many  Ladies,  sat 
at  some  distance  in  their  Chairs,  but  upon  the  Accident 
that  happened  to  the  Emperor's  Horse,  they  alighted,  and 
came  near  to  his  Person,  which  I  am  now  going  to  de- 
scribe. He  is  taller  by  almost  a  breadth  of  my  Nail,  than 
any  of  his  Court,  which  alone  is  enough  to  strike  an  Awe 
into  the  Beholders.  His  Features  are  strong  and  mascu- 
line, with  an  Austrian  Lip  and  arched  Nose,  his  Complex- 
ion olive,  his  Countenance  erect,  his  Body  and  Limbs  well 
proportioned,  all  his  motions  graceful,  and  his  Deportment 
majestick.  He  was  then  past  his  Prime,  being  twenty- 
eight  Years  and  three  Quarters  old,  of  which  he  had 
reigned  about  seven,  in  great  Felicity,  and  generally  vic- 
torious. For  the  better  convenience  of  beholding  him,  I 
lay  on  my  Side,  so  that  my  Face  was  parallel  to  his,  and 
he  stood  but  three  Yards  off:  However,  I  have  had  him 
since  many  times  in  my  Hand,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
deceived  in  the  Description.     His  Dress  was  very  plain 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      151 

and  simple,  and  the  Fashion  of  it  between  the  Asiatick 
and  the  European:  but  he  had  on  his  Head  a  Hght  Helmet 
of  Gold,  adorned  with  Jewels,  and  a  Plume  on  the  Crest. 
He  held  his  Sword  drawn  in  his  Hand,  to  defend  himself, 
if  I  should  happen  to  break  loose;  it  was  almost  three 
Inches  long,  the  Hilt  and  Scabbard  were  Gold,  enriched 
with  Diamonds.  His  Voice  was  shrill,  but  very  clear  and 
articulate,  and  I  could  distinctly  hear  it  when  I  stood  up. 
The  Ladies  and  Courtiers  were  all  most  magnificently 
clad,  so  that  the  Spot  they  stood  upon  seemed  to  resemble 
a  Petticoat  spread  on  the  Ground,  embroidered  with  Fig- 
ures of  Gold  and  Silver.  His  Imperial  Majesty  spoke 
often  to  me,  and  I  returned  Answers,  but  neither  of  us 
could  understand  a  Syllable.  There  were  several  of  his 
•Priests  and  Lawyers  present  (as  I  conjectured  by  their 
Habits)  who  were  commanded  to  address  themselves  to 
me,  and  I  spoke  to  them  in  as  many  Languages  as  I  had 
the  least  smattering  of,  which  were  High  and  Low  Dutch, 
Latin,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Lingua  Franca;  but 
all  to  no  purpose.  After  about  two  Hours  the  Court  re- 
tired, and  I  was  left  with  a  strong  Guard,  to  prevent  the 
Impertinence,  and  probably  the  Malice  of  the  Rabble, 
who  were  very  impatient  to  croud  about  me  as  near  as 
they  durst,  and  some  of  them  had  the  Impudence  to  shoot 
their  Arrows  at  me  as  I  sate  on  the  Ground  by  the  Door 
of  my  House,  whereof  one  very  narrowly  missed  my 
left  Eye.  But  the  Colonel  ordered  six  of  the  Ring-leaders 
to  be  seized,  and  thought  no  punishment  so  proper  as  to 
deliver  them  bound  into  my  hands,  which  some  of  his 
Soldiers  accordingly  did,  pushing  them  forwards  with 
the  But-Ends  of  their  Pikes  into  my  Reach ;  I  took  them 
all  in  my  right  Hand,  put  five  of  them  into  my  Coat- 
Pocket,  and  as  to  the  sixth,  I  made  a  Countenance  as  if 
I  would  eat  him  alive.  The  poor  Man  squalled  terribly 
and  the  Colonel  and  his  Officers  were  in  much  pain,  es- 
pecially when  they  saw  me  take  out  my  Penknife:  But 
I  soon  put  them  out  of  fear;  for,  looking  mildly  and 
immediately  cutting  the  Strings  he  was  bound  with,  I 
set  him  gently  on  the  Ground,  and  away  he  ran ;  I  treated 


152  Longer  Themes 

the  rest  in  the  same  manner,  taking  them  one  by  one  out 
of  my  Pocket,  and  I  observed  both  the  Soldiers  and  Peo- 
ple were  highly  obliged  at  this  mark  of  my  Clemency, 
which  was  represented  very  much  to  my  Advantage  at 
Court. 

Jonathan  Swift:  Gulliver's  Travels. 

5.  Divide  the  following  selection  into  two  or  three 
paragraphs,  as  seems  best.  It  forms  but  one  paragraph 
in  a  long  composition,  "  Sesame  and  Lilies,"  but  you 
are  to  consider  it  as  a  composition  by  itself,  and  para- 
graph it  accordingly.  To  what  extent  is  the  division 
into  paragraphs  affected  by  the  length  of  the  compo- 
sition in  which  they  occur  ?     Find  an  illustration. 

The  good  book  of  the  hour,  then — I  do  not  speak  of 
the  bad  ones — is  simply  the  useful  or  pleasant  talk  of 
some  persons  whom  you  cannot  otherwise  converse  with, 
printed  for  you.  Very  useful  often,  telling  you  what  you 
need  to  know ;  very  pleasant  often,  as  a  sensible  friend's 
present  talk  would  be.  These  bright  accounts  of  travels ; 
good-humored  and  witty  discussions  of  question;  lively 
or  pathetic  story-telling  in  the  form  of  novel ;  firm  fact- 
telling,  by  the  real  agents  concerned  in  the  events  of  pass- 
ing history; — all  these  books  of  the  hour,  multiplying 
among  uS  as  education  becomes  more  general,  are  a  pecu- 
liar characteristic  and  possession  of  the  present  age ;  we 
ought  to  be  entirely  thankful  for  them,  and  entirely 
ashamed  of  ourselves  if  we  make  no  good  use  of  them. 
But  we  make  the  worst  possible  use  if  we  allow  them  to 
usurp  the  place  of  true  books :  for,  strictly  speaking,  they 
are  not  true  books  at  all,  but  merely  letters  or  newspapers 
in  good  print.  Our  friend's  letter  may  be  delightful,  or 
necessary,  to-day:  whether  worth  keeping  or  not,  is  to 
be  considered.  The  newspaper  may  be  entirely  proper  at 
breakfast  time,  but  assuredly  it  is  not  reading  for  all  day. 
So,  though  bound  up  in  a  volume,  the  long  letter  which 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      153 

gives  you  so  pleasant  an  account  of  the  inns,  and  roads, 
and  weather  last  year  at  such  a  place,  or  which  tells  you 
that  amusing  story,  or  gives  you  the  real  circumstances 
of  such  and  such  events,  however  valuable  for  occasional 
reference,  may  not  be,  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word,  a 
"  book  "  at  all,  nor,  in  the  real  sense,  to  be  "  read/*  A 
book  is  essentially  not  a  talked  thing,  but  a  written  thing ; 
and  written,  not  with  the  view  of  mere  communication, 
but  of  permanence.  The  book  of  talk  is  printed  only 
because  its  author  cannot  speak  to  thousands  of  persons 
at  once;  if  he  could,  he  would — the  volume  is  mere 
multiplication  of  his  voice.  You  cannot  talk  to  your  friend 
in  India;  if  you  could,  you  would;  you  write  instead: 
that  is  mere  conveyance  of  voice.  But  a  book  is  written, 
not  to  multiply  the  voice  merely,  not  to  carry  it  merely, 
but  to  preserve  it.  The  author  has  something  to  say 
which  he  perceives  to  be  true  and  useful,  or  helpfully 
beautiful.  So  far  as  he  knows,  no  one  has  yet  said  it; 
so  far  as  he  knows,  no  one  else  can  say  it.  He  is  bound 
to  say  it,  clearly  and  melodiously,  if  he  may;  clearly,  at  all 
events.  In  the  sum  of  his  life  he  finds  this  to  be  the 
thing,  or  group  of  things,  manifest  to  him; — this,  the 
piece  of  true  knowledge,  or  sight,  which  his  share  of 
sunshine  and  earth  has  permitted  him  to  seize.  He  would 
fain  set  it  down  forever;  engrave  it  on  rock,  if  he  could; 
saying,  **  This  is  the  best  of  me ;  for  the  rest,  I  ate,  and 
drank,  and  slept,  loved,  and  hated,  like  another;  my  life 
was  as  the  vapour,  and  is  not ;  but  this  I  saw  and  knew ; 
this,  if  anything  of  mine,  is  worth  your  memory."  That 
is  his  "  writing  " ;  it  is,  in  his  small  human  way,  and  with 
whatever  degree  of  true  inspiration  is  in  him,  his  in- 
scription, or  scripture.     That  is  a  "  Book." 

John  Ruskin  :  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

6.  Criticize  the  division  of  the  following  theme  into 
paragraphs.  Reparagraph  it,  rearranging  the  order  of 
sentences  or  paragraphs  if  this  will  improve  the  co- 
herence. 


154  Longer  Themes 


A   RAMBLE 

Leaving  "  Andy  "  tied  to  an  old  rail  fence  I  crossed  a 
clearing  and  slowly  ascended  a  hill. 

A  ride  of  five  miles  from  town  had  brought  me  to  the 
woods  that  flanked  the  Maquoketa  river. 

Some  fifteen  hundred  acres  were  covered  with  a 
forest,  as  yet  untouched,  except  in  small  areas,  by  the 
woodman's  axe. 

The  country  was  rough — that  is,  for  a  prairie  coun- 
try, and  so  I  preferred  to  walk  rather  than  attempt  to 
drive  over  the  steep  hills  and  a  trail  leading  among  nu- 
merous stumps. 

It  was  in  the  afternoon  of  one  of  the  early  October 
days,  and  the  frosts  of  September  had  vied  with  each 
other  to  produce  the  loveliest  tints  among  the  leaves, 
which  now  clothed  the  trees  as  for  a  gala  day. 

A  great  variety  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs  showed  that 
the  region  was  rich  in  botanical  specimens,  while  here 
and  there  were  outcroppings  of  limestone.  I  picked  up 
several  fragments  of  rock;  one  was  Niagara  limestone, 
the  others  were  Maquoketa  limestone  and  rich  in  fossils 
of  one  kind.  It  was  easy  to  identify  these  as  brachiopods 
from  their  peculiar  shape. 

A  short,  angry  bark  caused  me  to  look  up,  and  there  in 
a  scrub  oak,  almost  concealed  behind  its  dark  red  leaves, 
was  a  fox  squirrel,  and  at  the  foot  of  another  tree  near 
by  was  a  gray  squirrel  busily  engaged  in  gathering 
acorns. 

I  noticed  a  movement  on  a  ledge  of  rocks,  and  there, 
eyeing  me  inquisitively,  crouched  a  raccoon.  He  had  so 
far  forgotten  his  habits  as  to  be  seen  during  the  day  time. 
Having  satisfied  his  curiosity,  he  leisurely  descended  and 
crawled  into  a  hole  at  the  base  of  the  rocks. 

A  few  feet  farther  on,  half  a  dozen  pines  reared  their 
branches  high  into  the  air.  Their  roots  sought  every 
crevice  and  fissure  in  the  rocks  for  a  foothold  on  the  edge 
of  the  cliff.  Their  dark  green  needles  covered  the  rocks 
and  grass  beneath,  and  the  cones  were  scattered  as  figures 


The  Division  into  Paragraphs      155 

on  this  wCMDclland  carpet.  A  few  birds  with  strong  beaks 
were  at  work  among  the  cones,  extracting  a  Uving  from 
their  hard  husks. 

The  southern  breeze  Hghtly  passed  through  the 
branches  and  sighed  softly  or  moaned  plaintively  with 
the  varying  strength  of  the  wind. 

On  the  opposite  slope  of  the  hill  the  red  and  golden 
leaves  of  the  hard  maple  reflected  a  glow  throughout  the 
branches,  as  if  they  had  been  immersed  in  liquid  sunshine. 

Straggling  groups  of  sumach  with  their  crimson  ban- 
ners surrounded  the  maples.  Here  and  there  the  silvery 
leaf  of  a  birch  glinted  and  glimmered  with  every  gentle 
breeze. 

The  oak  leaves  displayed  every  color  from  a  dark  vel- 
vet to  a  deep  red,  yet  all  this  color  was  strewn  as  care- 
lessly on  the  mighty  canvas  of  the  side  hill,  as  if  a  child, 
weary  with  its  play  with  paints,  had  thrown  them  petu- 
lantly from  him.  Yet  the  tints  as  they  reached  the  eye 
were  harmonious ;  nor  did  one  feel  any  incongruity.  The 
panorama  placed  before  me  was  ever-shifting  as  the 
sun  sank  lower  and  lower  to  the  horizon.  All  was  quiet 
and  beautiful. 

7-     Separate  this  conversation  into  paragraphs. 

The  young  lady  paused  in  front  of  his  bench,  near  the 
parapet  of  the  garden,  which  overlooked  the  lake.  The 
little  boy  had  now  converted  his  alpenstock  into  a  vault- 
ing-pole, by  the  aid  of  which  he  was  springing  about  in 
the  gravel,  and  kicking  it  up  a  little.  *'  Randolph,"  said 
the  young  lady,  "what  are  you  doing?"  "I'm  going 
up  the  Alps,"  replied  Randolph.  "  This  is  the  way ! " 
And  he  gave  another  little  jump,  scattering  the  pebbles 
about  Winterbourne's  ears.  ''  That 's  the  way  they  come 
down,"  said  Winterbourne.  "  He  's  an  American  man !  " 
cried  Randolph  in  his  little  hard  voice.  The  young  lady 
gave  no  heed  to  this  announcement,  but  looked  straight 
at  her  brother.  "  Well,  I  guess  you  had  better  be  quiet," 
she  simply  observed. 

Henry  James  :  Daisy  Miller. 


156  Longer  Themes 


8.  Make  a  plan  for  a  theme  of  500  words  on  one  of 
the  following  subjects.  The  plan  is  to  be  a  series  of 
sentences,  each  sentence  standing  for  a  paragraph  in 
the  completed  theme.  These  plans  should  be  brought 
into  the  class  and  criticized,  and  then  developed  into 
themes. 

Descriptions:  From  a  Car  Window.  A  Quiet  Spot  in 
the  Country.  An  Old  Mansion.  Milking  Time.  An 
Indian  Tepee.  A  Restaurant.  A  Summer  Resort.  A 
Cotton  Field.  A  Belle  of  the  Time  of  Queen  Anne. 
A  Cave  among  the  Hills. 

Narratives  :  A  Yacht  Race.  A  Burglar  Story.  A  Day 
in  a  Canvas  Canoe.  An  Eclipse  of  the  Moon.  The  Fish 
I  Did  n't  Catch.  A  Hallowe'en  Party.  A  Day  in  Lon- 
don. A  Dinner  with  Dr.  Johnson.  A  Misunderstand- 
ing.    A  Visit  to  a  Coal  Mine. 

Expositions:  Some  Common  Superstitions.  A  New 
England  Town  Meeting.  Reading  History.  Keeping  a 
Cash  Account.  A  Character  Sketch  of  Oliver  Gold- 
smith. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SUMMARY  OF  PART  I 

1.  It  may  seem  to  the  student  who  has  gone  thus  far 
in  this  book  that,  although  the  advice  is  good,  there 
is  too  much  of  it  to  keep  in  mind  while  writing.  There 
certainly  is,  until  he  has  become  very  familiar  with  it. 
The  beginner  need  not  bother  much  about  all  the 
suggestions  in  the  book  while  he  is  actually  writ- 
ing, but  should  have  his  mind  intent  on  his  subject 
and  his  reader.  He  will  have  time  enough  to  consider 
and  apply  precepts  before  and  after  writing.  Few  peo- 
ple can  make  the  first  draft  of  a  composition  the  final 
one;  most  people  find  that  they  must  do  a  great  deal 
of  planning  and  rewriting. 

2.  The  most  profitable  course  for  the  majority  to  fol- 
low is:  (i)  Think  over  your  subject  carefully;  decide 
just  what  you  want  to  put  into  your  theme,  and  how 
you  want  to  arrange  and  proportion  it.  (2)  Write  the 
theme  as  rapidly  as  you  can,  keeping  in  mind  the  reader 
and  the  principles  of  composition.  (3)  Let  the  theme 
stand  for  a  while,  overnight  if  possible,  then  look  it 
over  carefully,  read  it  aloud  if  you  can  find  a  listener, 
and  revise  it  in  the  light  of  all  you  have  learned  of 
rhetorical  rules  and  principles,  and  the  qualities  of  style. 

157 


158  Summary  of  Part  I 

Under  the  first  and  third  divisions  of  this  process,  in  the 
work  of  prevision  and  revision,  you  v^ill  have  an  op- 
portunity to  put  into  practice  the  suggestions  derived 
from  this  text-book  and  class  criticism  and  your  study 
of  prose  masterpieces.  Such  a  triple  process  may  seem 
unduly  laborious ;  but,  if  it  is  adopted,  the  student  will 
soon  have  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  that  the  conscious 
application  of  rhetorical  principles,  which  he  makes  in 
prevision  and  revision,  enables  him  to  do  his  best  work 
when  he  is  writing  rapidly,  unconscious  for  the  moment 
that  such  a  thing  as  rhetoric  exists.  His  habits  of 
composition  will  become  well-principled.  What  at  first 
he  do€S  deliberately,  he  will  soon  do  unconsciously. 

3.  The  substance  of  Part  I  is  not,  however,  very 
difficult  to  remember.  Let  us  see  some  of  the  questions 
that  a  student  should  be  able  to  answer. 

4.  In  the  first  four  chapters  some  preliminary  mat- 
ters are  discussed.  What  is  rhetoric  ?  How  can  it  be 
learned  ?  How  can  you  do  justice  to  the  writer  ?  to  the 
subject?  to  the  reader?  What  are  the  differences  be- 
tween spoken  and  written  discourse?  What  is  style? 
What  are  the  essential  qualities  of  good  style?  What 
is  composition?  What  are  the  divisions  of  a  composi- 
tion ?  What  principles  guide  us  in  these  various  units 
of  composition?  Define  each  of  them.  Which  have 
you  had  the  most  trouble  in  observing?  in  what  unit 
of  composition  ?  What  is  meant  by  good  use  ?  In  what 
respects  does  it  guide  us  in  composition?  Where  are 
you  to  go  for  subjects?  What  restrictions  are  placed 
on  the  choice  of  subjects?     What  is  the  difference  be- 


Summary  of  Part  I  159 

tween  a  subject  and  a  title?  What  is  the  most  interest- 
ing subject  you  have  written  on  ?  What  is  the  best  title 
you  have  selected  ?  Are  there  any  other  questions  that 
ought  to  be  answered  on  the  first  four  chapters  ? 

5.  The  next  four  chapters  treat  of  short  themes,  one 
or  two  paragraphs  in  length.  What  is  a  paragraph? 
How  is  it  indicated  in  manuscript  ?  in  print  ?  What  are 
the  practical  advantages  in  writing  themes  a  paragraph 
in  length  ?  How  long  should  a  paragraph  be  ?  What 
relation  does  a  paragraph  have  to  a  sentence?  to  a 
long  composition  ?  What  is  a  topic-sentence  ?  In  de- 
veloping a  topic-sentence  into  a  paragraph,  what  are  the 
requirements  of  the  principle  of  Unity?  of  Cohe- 
rence? of  Emphasis?  What  suggestions  have  you 
found  of  most  aid  in  making  well-principled  para- 
graphs? Where  can  the  topic  of  the  paragraph  best 
be  stated?  By  what  different  means  can  it  be  devel- 
oped? Which  of  these  do  you  use  most  frequently? 
From  your  study  of  good  prose,  what  have  you  learned 
about  paragraphs  that  is  not  found  in  the  text-book? 
Ought  it  to  be  there  ? 

6.  In  composing  themes  of  even  one  or  two  para- 
graphs, it  is  useful  to  understand  something  of  the 
nature,  aim,  and  method  of  each  of  the  four  forms  of 
prose,  and  these  are  discussed  in  Chapters  7  and  8. 
What  are  the  four  forms  of  prose  ?  Give  an  example 
of  each.  Which  gives  you  the  most  difficulty?  What 
is  the  aim  of  each  ?  In  selecting  material  for  any  one 
of  these  four  forms  of  prose,  how  are  you  governed 
by  its  aim?     In  arranging  the  material,  what  differ- 


i6o  Summary  of  Part  I 

ent  methods  for  each  form  ?  what  special  rules  for  each  ? 
In  proportioning  your  material,  are  there  any  special 
considerations  to  be  kept  in  mind  for  each  form?  Note 
all  the  special  directions  you  can  remember  for  the  se- 
lection, arrangement,  and  proportion  of  material  in 
each  of  the  forms  of  prose.  Are  these  four  kinds  of 
prose  always  separated?  Are  two  or  more  of  them 
ever  combined  in  any  one  composition  ?  Did  you  ever 
use  three  of  them  in  one  theme  ?  How  can  two  or  more 
of  the  four  aims  be  united  in  one  theme  ?  Do  any  of 
these  aims  contradict  the  main  aim  of  all  composition — 
to  produce  a  clear  and  forcible  style?  Do  any  of  their 
methods  contradict  the  principles  of  composition? 
Would  the  following  statements  apply  to  all  four  kinds 
of  prose  ?  In  selection,  we  must  choose  what  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  subject  and  suited  to  the  purpose  of  the 
theme,  if  we  are  to  have  Unity.  In  order  to  secure  Co- 
herence, the  arrangement  may  be  chronological  or  logi- 
cal or  such  as  will  give  prominence  to  significant  details. 
Emphasis  is  promoted  by  this  last  arrangement,  and 
by  the  proper  proportion  of  the  various  parts. 
7.  The  last  four  chapters  discuss  the  different  stages 
of  the  work  of  writing  a  theme  containing  a  number 
of  paragraphs, — ^the  plan,  the  beginning,  the  end,  the 
development,  the  division  into  paragraphs.  What  are 
the  successive  steps  in  planning  a  theme  ?  What  prac- 
tical methods  are  suggested  for  the  selection  of  mate- 
rial? for  its  arrangement?  its  proportion?  What  is 
the  use  of  so  much  care  in  making  the  plan  ?  Describe 
in  detail  a  good  plan.     What  are  the  requisites  for  an 


Summary  of  Part  I  1 6 1 

effective  beginning  of  a  theme?  an  effective  end? 
What  are  digressions  ?  Why  should  they  be  avoided  ? 
Define  the  point  of  view.  What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween Unity  of  selection  and  Unity  of  expression? 
Why  should  the  progress  from  one  part  of  the  theme 
to  another  be  indicated  to  the  reader?  How  can  this 
be  done  ?  How  can  Emphasis  of  expression  be  secured  ? 
What  is  the  purpose  of  the  division  of  a  theme  into 
paragraphs?  How  is  a  narrative  divided  into  para- 
graphs? a  conversation?  To  what  specific  purposes 
can  the  opening  and  the  closing  sentences  of  each  para- 
graph be  put  ?  How  are  words,  phrases,  sentences,  and 
paragraphs  used  to  mark  connections,  divisions,  or 
transitions  between  the  parts  of  a  composition?  What 
special  considerations  are  to  be  noted  in  the  compo- 
sition of  a  long  exposition?  an  argument?  a  descrip- 
tion? a  narrative? 

8.  There  is  one  thing  more  to  be  remembered,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  answers  to  these  questions, — that  the  prin- 
ciples of  composition  are  merely  guides  to  secure  certain 
results.  In  writing  we  want  to  express  our  thoughts 
and  interest  our  readers.  For  the  vast  majority  of  peo- 
ple, a  unified,  coherent,  and  emphatic  presentation  of 
ideas  is  the  most  effective;  and  in  a  majority  of  cases 
the  methods  suggested  in  this  book  are  the  surest  means 
of  attaining  these  fundamental  principles.  Methods, 
however,  are  always  determined  by  the  effects  sought. 
Ha  writer  were  giving  the  talk  of  an  incoherent  per- 
son, as  in  the  paragraph  from  "  Daisy  Miller  "  on  page 
49,  he  would  not  connect  the  sentences  carefully  or 


i62  Summary  of  Part  I 

arrange  them  in  a  logical  order.  If  he  were  writing 
to  a  child,  he  would  take  special  pains  not  only  to  be 
clear,  but  also  to  use  short  and  familiar  words.  In 
composing  a  play,  a  system  of  philosophy,  or  a  rhap- 
sody, while  the  principles  would  still  be  useful  guides, 
a  writer  would  need  different  methods  from  those  em- 
phasized here.  We  are  studying  English  Composition 
from  the  point  of  view  of  one  who  wishes  to  say  some- 
thing clearly  and  forcibly  to  persons  of  average  in- 
telligence. To  learn  to  do  this,  we  should  keep  to  the 
principles  with  unswerving  faith,  listen  to  their  reit- 
eration with  patience,  and  follow  their  guidance  with 
untiring  attention. 


EXERCISES 

I 

1.  Class-room  Exercise.  (Fifteen  minutes.)  Wnte^ 
a  paragraph  in  answer  to  these  questions.  Which 
kind  of  writing.  Description,  Narrative,  Exposition, 
Argument,  gives  you  the  greatest  difficulty?     Why? 

2.  Class-room  Exercise.  Write  a  theme  of  one  or 
two  paragraphs  on :  ( i )  Unity  in  Whole  Compositions, 
(2)  Coherence  in  Whole  Compositions,  or  (3)  Empha- 
sis in  Whole  Compositions.  These  themes  may  be 
compared  with  the  matter  in  the  text-book,  (a)  in 
Chapters  9-12;  (b)  in  the  summaries  at  the  ends  of 
the  chapters;  (c)  in  the  general  summary,  Chapter  13. 


Summary  of  Part  I  163 

In  criticizing  these  themes,  especial  attention  should  be 
paid  to:  (i)  What  ideas  are  omitted?  (2)  Is  the  ar- 
rangement good?  (3)  Is  the  theme  emphatic? 
3-  Criticism  of  themes  of  over  500  words  can  now 
be  made  according  to  the  following  outline.  The  kind 
of  criticism  desired  can  be  seen  from  the  illustrative 
questions  which  follow  the  main  heads  of  the  outline. 
Many  other  similar  questions  should  suggest  them- 
selves to  you. 

I.  Material.  Does  it  seem  familiar  to  the  writer? 
Is  it  interesting  ?  Can  you  suggest  any  other  mat- 
ters that  might  properly  have  been  included? 

11.  Subject  and  Title.  Is  the  subject  suited  to  the 
length  of  the  theme  ?    Is  the  title  clear  ?  and  brief  ? 

III.  Plan.  What  are  the  main  headings?     Has  the  plan 

Unity  ?  Coherence  ?  Proportion  ?  What  changes 
can  you  suggest  in  the  arrangement  or  proportion 
of  parts? 

IV.  Beginning  and   End.     Do  they  contain  anything 

unnecessary  ?  Is  the  beginning  clear  ?  the  end  im- 
portant ? 
V.  Development.  Is  there  Unity  of  Expression?  Is 
one  point  of  view  maintained  ?  Do  the  connectives 
indicate  the  plan  clearly?  Do  any  parts  require 
more  extended  or  more  emphatic  development? 
VI.  The  Division  into  Paragraphs.  Can  you  suggest 
any  alterations  in  the  division  into  paragraphs  ? 

4.  Write  a  theme  of  one  or  two  paragraphs  on  one 
of  the  following  subjects.  Divide  the  subject  into 
parts ;  take  up  each  in  the  order  of  its  interest  or  im- 
portance, ending  with  the  most  important. 

1.  The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Speaker. 

2.  The  Character  of  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 


164  Summary  of  Part  I 

3.  The  Absurdities  of  the  Plot  in  the  "  Vicar  of  Wake- 

field." 

4.  Is  Shakespeare  fair  to  Julius  Caesar? 

5.  The  Ups  and  Downs  of  Hats. 

6.  Nelson's  Conception  of  Honor.     (Southey's  Life.) 

7.  The  Different  Places  in  which  the  Story  of  "  David 

Copperfield  "  is  Laid. 

8.  Advantages  of  Learning  a  Trade. 

9.  Getting  Along  with  People. 

10.     Kipling's  "  Barrack  Room  Ballads." 


5.     Additional  Subjects  for  Themes  of  Two  or 
Three  Paragraphs. 

1.  How  to  Repair  a  Bicycle  Tire. 

2.  Analysis  of  a  Flower. 

3.  The  Real  Shylock. 

4.  Our  Debating  Society. 

5.  How  I  Learned  to  Skate. 

6.  The  Pyncheon  Hens. 

7.  Difficulties  of  Writing  a  Theme. 

8.  The  Passing  of  the  Spare  Chamber. 

9.  David  Copperfield's  School  Life. 

10.  The  Story  of  Silas  Mamer. 

11.  The  Most  Amusing  Scene  in  "Twelfth  Night." 

12.  How  did  Sir  Andrew  Auguecheek  Look? 

13.  How  did  Rosalind  Look? 

14.  Addison's  Description  of  Westminster  Abbey  com- 

pared with  Irving's. 

15.  The  Fight  between  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

16.  Will  Honeycomb  at  a  London  Coffee-house. 

17.  A  short  account  of  the  character  and  achievements 

of  some  distinguished  American,  either  of  the  past 
or  present:  Alexander  Hamilton,  Washington 
Irving,  Andrew  Jackson,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
Thomas  B.  Reed,  John  Fiske,  Bret  Harte,  John 
Burroughs,  President  Roosevelt. 


Summary  of  Part  I  165 

If  these  themes  show  especial  excellence,  they  may  be 
made  the  basis  for  themes  of  greater  length — 700-9CK) 
words. 

6.  Subjects  for  Descriptions  of  500-700  Words. 
Plans  should  be  made  for  these  themes,  with  especial 
attention  to:  (i)  general  impression;  (2)  detailed  im- 
pressions; (3)  some  especially  characteristic  details. 
The  following  plan  will  serve  for  an  example. 

"The  Corners." 

1.  A  group  of  stores  interrupts  the  succession  of  residences 
and  deep  lawns  on  the  avenue.  Irregularity  of  appearance,  wood, 
brick,  small,  large;  vacant  lots;  dirty  street. 

2.  The  traffic  is  greater  here  than  elsewhere.  Wagons  with 
produce  from  the  country;  handsome  carriages  on  their  way  to 
the  park  near  by ;  shoppers ;  newsboys ;  boys  and  girls  just  out  of 
school. 

3.  There  are  all  kinds  of  small  stores.  Variety  of  color  in 
windows;  provisions  on  sidewalk;  pop-corn  stands;  groceries, 
candy,  soda-water. 

4.  Busiest  of  all  is  a  little  shop  patronized  by  school-children. 
The  display  in  the  unwashed  windows ;  the  stream  of  patrons. 

The  details  should  unite  to  give  a  general  impression  of  in- 
congruity and  bustle. 

I.  Some  Portion  of  the  City.  2.  The  Holiday  Crowd, 
3.  In  a  Railway  Station.  4.  The  Audience  at  a  Lecture. 
5.  Field  Day.  6.  Recollections  of  a  Visit  to  an  Art 
Museum.  7.  A  County  Fair.  8.  A  Country  Village.  9. 
The  Bathing  Beach.     10.    A  Summer  Resort. 

7-  Subjects  for  Narratives  of  600-800  Words. 
Plans  should  be  made  with  especial  attention  to  the 
beginning,  the  end,  the  objective  point,  and  to  the 
proportion  of  parts. 


1 66  Summary  of  Part  I 

1.  A  Cruise  in  a  Canoe. 

2.  A  Visit  to  a  Department  Store. 

3.  The  Life  of  a  Butterfly. 

4.  A  Ride  on  an  Elevated  Railway. 

5.  A  Visit  to  a  Museum. 

6.  My  Cranford  Party. 

7.  A  Trolley  Car  in  Cranford. 

8.  A  Trip  to  the  Moon. 

9.  A  Christmas  Story. 

10.  A  Day  in  London  with  Goldsmith. 

11.  The  Conspiracy  of  Aaron  Burr. 

12.  Story  of  Beowulf ; — from  the  point  of  view  of  Gren- 

del's  mother. 

13.  The  Defense  of  Thermopylae; — told  by  one  of  the 

Persians. 

14.  The  Story  of  Enoch  Arden ; — from  Annie's  point 

of  view. 

15.  An  Imaginary  Dinner  with  Boswell  and  Dr.  Johnson. 

8.     Subjects  for  Expositions. 

1.  A  Comparison  of  Two  of  Shakespeare's  Heroines: 

Rosalind  and  Viola. 

2.  Carlyle's  Style  in  the  Essay  on  Burns.     Follow  this 

general  outHne:  i.  Words  (including  figures  of 
speech  and  allusions);  2.  Sentences;  3.  Para- 
graphs; 4.  Qualities  of  Style,  Ease,  Rapidity,  Hu- 
mor, Pathos,  etc. 

3.  Macaulay's  Style  in  the  Essay  on  Milton. 

4.  The  Historical  Truth  of  Cooper's  "  Last  of  the  Mo- 

hicans." 

5.  Goldsmith's  Autobiography  in  the  "  Vicar  of  Wake- 

field." 

6.  The  Life  of  the  Puritans  as  Seen  in  '*  Miles  Standish." 

7.  Dickens's  Autobiography  in  "  David  Copperfield." 

9*    Subjects  for  Arguments.     Follow  this  general 
outline  in  making  your  plans,     i.  Origin  of  the  ques- 


Summary  of  Part  I  167 

tion;  the  question  defined  and  limited;  the  question 
carefully  stated.  2.  Proofs.  Each  should  be  given  at 
least  one  paragraph,  and  the  most  important  should 
be  put  last.     3.  Conclusion. 

1.  A  four  years'  course  in  English  should  be  given  in 

every  high  school. 

2.  In  the  course  in  English  literature  more  attention 

should  be  paid  to  English  history. 

3.  Athletics  in  this  school  should  be  under  the  direct 

supervision  of  the  faculty. 

4.  The  fifth  act  of  the  "  Merchant  of  Venice  '*  is  super- 

fluous. 

5.  The  annexation  of  Cuba  would  be  advantageous  to 

this  country. 

6.  The  weird  sisters  add  to  the  impressiveness  of  Mac- 

beth. 

7.  The  number  of  elective  courses  offered  in  this  school 

should  be  greatly  increased. 


I 


'^ 


PART  II 

SENTENCES,  WORDS 
GOOD  USE 


■/^; 


CHAPTER  XIV 

DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  SENTENCES 

1.  Whenever  we  try  to  express  our  thoughts  to 
others,  whether  in  writing  or  speaking,  we  combine 
words  into  sentences.  If  we  speak  or  write  so  as  to 
be  readily  understood  by  others,  each  sentence  must 
be  composed  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  good  use 
comprised  in  grammar,  and  if  we  group  sentences  into 
paragraphs  and  compositions,  the  form  that  each  sen- 
tence takes  will  depend  in  part  on  the  relation  of  its 
thought  to  the  thoughts  in  the  neighboring  sentences. 
At  the  same  time,  each  sentence  is  by  itself  an  im- 
portant unit  of  composition,  and  is  to  be  constructed 
under  the  guidance  of  the  principles  of  composition  so 
as  to  express  our  ideas  clearly  and  forcibly.  In  all 
our  discussion  of  sentences,  therefore,  we  must  bear  in 
mind  these  three  considerations:  (i)  a  sentence  must 
be  grammatical;  (2)  it  should  aid  in  expressing  the 
thought  of  the  paragraph;  (3)  it  should  be  a  unit 
of  thought  itself,  expressing  by  its  structure  the  re- 
lations of  its  ideas.  In  the  present  chapter  these  three 
considerations  are  to  be  applied  to  the  different  forms 
of  sentences. 

2.  Grammar  supplies  us  with  a  definition  of  a  sentence 

171 


172  Sentences 

and  a  division  of  sentences  into  three  kinds.  A  sen- 
tence consists  of  a  number  of  words,  which  make  com- 
plete sense,  and  which  therefore  have  a  subject  and  a 
predicate.  Stray  phrases  and  clauses  like  the  follow- 
ing are  not  sentences  and  are  rarely  found  in  good 
style. 

Detached  and  irresponsible  words.  Refusing  to  be 
joined  to  their  comrades.  Although  it  is  clear  that  nei- 
ther a  few  disconnected  words  nor  a  phrase,  nor  even  a 
dependent  clause  like  this,  makes  complete  sense. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  a  single  statement,  one  subject 
and  one  predicate,  is  simple;  one  consisting  of  at  least 
two  independent  statements  is  compound;  one  consist- 
ing of  at  least  one  dependent  and  one  independent  state- 
ment is  complex.  All  sentences  are  of  one  of  these 
three  kinds,  and  many  are  both  compound  and  complex. 
3'  This  classification  conforms  to  the  relations  of  our 
ideas.  An  idea  may  stand  by  itself  in  thought,  and 
therefore  require  expression  in  a  simple  sentence,  as 
the  first  in  this  paragraph.  Or  two  or  three  inde- 
pendent ideas  may  be  closely  related  in  thought,  yet 
no  one  of  them  subordinate  to  another;  then  they  have 
their  proper  expression  in  a  compound  sentence,  like 
the  last  two  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  When,  how- 
ever, an  idea  is  dependent  on  another,  it  requires  ex- 
pression as  a  subordinate  clause  of  a  complex  sentence, 
like  the  present  one.  The  task  of  subordinating  and 
connecting  our  ideas  so  that  they  can  be  expressed  in 
complex  and  compound  sentences  is  a   fundamental 


DifFerent  Forms  173 

part  of  both  correct  thinking  and  correct  writing.  It 
involves  the  recognition  of  some  ideas  as  independent 
and  others  as  subordinate  to  them,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  exact  relation  of  one  to  the  other ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  relation  expressed  by  a  modifying  clause  of 
time,  cause,  or  purpose.  In  this  task  of  organizing 
thought  into  sentences,  v^e  shall  in  succeeding  chapters 
follow  the  guidance  of  the  principles  of  composition. 
We  shall  see  that  about  the  main  idea  stated  in  the 
principal  clause  there  may  be  grouped  a  number  of 
phrases  and  clauses  closely  connected  with  it,  all  the 
various  members  uniting  to  give  this  idea  complete 
expression,  and  all  bound  together  in  an  organic 
whole.  Here  we  may  note  that  the  classification  of 
sentences  into  simple,  compound,  and  complex,  calls 
attention  to  the  necessity  of  structure,  and  also  to  the 
opportunity  for  variety  in  the  sentences  of  a  para- 
graph. The  different  parts  of  a  sentence  must  be 
related  to  one  another  as  the  ideas  are  related  in 
thought,  but  these  relations  may  be  expressed  with 
infinite  variety. 

4»  The  parts  of  a  sentence  are  related  grammatically 
as  well  as  logically.  Grammar,  indeed,  is  the  enumer- 
ation of  the  decisions  of  good  use  in  regard  to  the 
composition  of  sentences.  In  a  later  chapter  we  shall 
examine  some  of  the  most  common  "  Solecisms,"  or 
mistakes  in  grammar,  but  everything  that  the  student 
has  learned  in  grammar  is  applicable  to  his  sentences. 
We  have  already  noticed  a  most  important  gramma- 
tical rule,  that  a  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a 


174  Sentences 

predicate.  The  subject,  we  learn  from  grammar,  may 
be  a  noun,  the  infinitive  of  a  verb,  or  a  clause,  and  may 
be  qualified  by  adjectives,  a  noun  in  apposition,  or  a 
relative  clause.  The  predicate  must  contain  a  verb, 
with  or  without  various  complements  and  modifiers. 
Phrases  and  clauses  may  have  adjectival  functions, 
modifying  nouns;  or  adverbial  functions,  modifying 
verbs.  By  these  and  many  other  rules,  grammar 
prescribes  the  forms  that  our  ideas  shall  take  and 
the  connections  that  may  exist  between  them  in  a 
sentence.  It  also  prescribes  to  a  considerable  extent 
their  order.  It  is  usual  for  an  adjective  to  precede  its 
noun,  a  relative  clause  to  follow  its  antecedent,  and 
the  subject  to  precede  its  verb.  Sometimes,  in  a  sen- 
tence,— as,  "  The  boy  shot  the  bird," — only  one  ar- 
rangement of  words  is  possible.  In  the  composition  of 
sentences,  therefore,  both  in  the  use  of  the  different 
parts  of  speech  and  their  combination  into  phrases  and 
clauses,  and  in  the  structure  and  connection  of  all  the 
parts,  and  to  a  large  extent  in  the  arrangement  of 
words,  we  must  conform  to  good  use  as  expressed  in 
grammar. 

5.  The  composition  of  any  sentence  depends  also  on 
the  sentences  that  precede  and  follow  it.  We  have  seen 
in  composing  paragraphs  how  necessary  it  is  to  have 
each  sentence  closely  connected  with  its  neighbors,  to 
have  one  begin  where  the  other  left  off.  Frequently 
we  should  place  in  the  first  part  of  a  sentence  some 
words  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence ;  in  deciding 
what  part  of  a  sentence  to  place  at  the  end,  we  need 


DifFerent  Forms  175 

to  consider  what  is  to  come  in  the  next  sentence.  The 
order  of  words  in  a  given  sentence  depends  not  only  on 
grammar,  but  also  on  the  progress  of  thought  in  the 
paragraph. 

6.  Sentences,  again,  may  be  said  to  be  either  short 
or  long.  The  average  length  of  English  sentences  has 
been  calculated  to  be  thirty  words.  Sentences  with 
less  may  be  considered  short;  with  more,  long.  Each 
kind  is  useful.  The  first  sentence  in  the  quotation 
from  Burke,  on  page  53,  is  short :  "  The  proposition 
is  peace."  The  last  sentence  of  the  quotation  is  long: 
"  I  propose,  by  removing  the  ground  of  difference,  and 
by  restoring  the  former  unsuspecting  confidence  of  the 
colonies  in  the  mother  country,  to  give  permanent  sat- 
isfaction to  your  people;  and  (far  from  a  scheme  of 
ruling  by  discord)  to  reconcile  them  to  each  other 
in  the  same  act  and  by  the  bond  of  the  very  same  in- 
terest which  reconciles  them  to  the  British  govern- 
ment.'* Both  are  excellent  sentences.  A  composition, 
however,  consisting  entirely  of  sentences  as  short  as 
the  first  would  give  a  choppy,  jerky  effect,  very  irritat- 
ing to  the  reader;  while  a  succession  of  sentences  as 
long  as  the  last  would  be  difficult  for  a  reader,  who 
would  be  obliged  to  make  a  constant  effort  to  retain 
the  matter  in  his  mind  from  one  period  to  the  next. 
A  paragraph  composed  of  sentences  of  the  same  length 
— short,  long,  or  medium — is  always  monotonous,  and 
to  be  avoided.  Variety  in  sentence  length  must  often 
be  sought  quite  consciously.  A  series  of  short  sen- 
tences may  lead  to  a  long  one,  as  in  the  paragraph  from 


176  Sentences 

Burke,  or  two  long  sentences  may  be  separated  by 
a  short  one,  as  in  the  second  paragraph  from  Addison, 
on  page  11.  Long  and  short  sentences  may  both  be 
used ;  both  together  are  better  than  either  separately. 

7.  In  any  particular  instance,  the  choice  between  long 
and  short  sentences  must  be  determined  in  part  by  the 
idea  to  be  expressed,  and  in  part  by  the  effect  sought. 
Short  sentences  can  express  ideas  tersely  and  emphat- 
ically, so  they  are  useful  at  the  beginning  of  a  para- 
graph to  introduce  a  subject,  or  at  the  end  to  sum  up 
a  discussion.  A  composition  should  usually  begin  with 
a  short  sentence.  Long  sentences  enable  a  writer  to 
state  a  Ayhole  thought  with  all  its  necessary  modifica- 
tions and  subordinate  details,  and  they  are  necessary  for 
the  expression  of  anything  beyond  the  most  simple  and 
fragmentary  thought.  A  long  sentence,  for  example, 
may  serve  in  a  paragraph  for  the  complete  explana- 
tion of  a  thought,  outlined  in  a  preceding  short  sen- 
tence, or  for  the  enumeration  of  many  brief  details,  or 
for  the  comparison  of  different  ideas.  Short  sentences 
give  a  style  the  very  desirable  qualities  of  simplicity, 
rapidity,  directness.  Long  sentences  are  capable  of 
great  varieties  of  structure  and  all  the  graces  of  dig- 
nity and  rhythm.  Burke's  first  sentence  presents  the 
thought  with  vigor  and  directness  suitable  to  the  open- 
ing sentences  of  a  paragraph ;  his  last  sentence  amplifies 
and  completes  the  same  thought  with  impressive  dig- 
nity. 

8.  Long  sentences  are  more  difficult  to  write  than 
short.     They  offer  more  chances  for  grammatical  mis- 


DiiFerent  Forms  177 

takes  and  for  violations  of  the  principles  of  compo- 
sition. Beginners  must,  therefore,  learn  to  write  good 
short  sentences  before  they  can  hope  to  write  good 
long  ones.  For  this  reason  they  are  sometimes  en- 
couraged to  write  only  short  sentences.  Yet  long  sen- 
tences are  indispensable  to  an  effective  style,  and  to 
avoid  them  is  merely  to  shirk  an  elementary  and  neces- 
sary task  of  composition.  The  student  can  hardly  be- 
gin too  early  the  practice  of  writing  sentences  of  some- 
what more  than  the  average  length.  Since  he  wishes 
to  express  his  ideas  concisely  and  vigorously,  he  should 
learn  to  write  short  sentences;  since  he  wishes  to  ex- 
press his  thoughts  comprehensively  and  connectedly, 
he  should  not  be  afraid  to  try  long  sentences. 
9'  All  sentences,  again,  are  either  loose  or  periodic.  A 
periodic  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  sense  is  incom- 
plete until  the  end.  All  others  are  loose.  In  a  periodic 
sentence,  a. period  cannot  be  placed  anywhere  before 
the  end ;  in  a  loose  sentence,  a  period  might  be  placed 
before  the  end,  and  yet  the  sense  be  complete.  "  Soon 
after  daylight.  Nelson  came  upon  deck." — is  a  periodic 
sentence.  "  Nelson  came  upon  deck  soon  after  day- 
light."— is  a  loose  sentence.  A  loose  sentence  may, 
however,  be  periodic  to  a  considerable  degree,  as  in 
the  following  from  Macaulay. 

The  perfect  historian  is  he  in  whose  work  the  character 
and  spirit  of  an  age  is  exhibited. in  miniature. 

The  sentence  is  loose,  for  the  sense  might  be  completed 
and  a  period  placed  after  "  exhibited,"  but  the  sentence 


1 78  Sentences 

is  periodic  to  that  point.  So  the  following  sentence 
from  Newman  is  periodic  as  far  as  **  hut " ;  after  that, 
sense  is  complete  at  several  places. 

In  the  bosom  of  the  woods  which  stretched  for  many 
miles  from  the  immediate  environs  of  Sicca,  and  placed 
on  a  gravel  slope  reaching  down  to  a  brook,  which  ran 
in  a  bottom  close  by,  was  a  small,  rude  hut^  of  a  kind  pe- 
culiar to  Africa,  and  commonly  ascribed  to  the  wandering 
tribes,  who  neither  cared,  nor  had  leisure,  for  a  more 
stable  habitation. 

10.  The  question  of  using  loose  or  periodic  sentences 
really  becomes  a  question  of  how  much  periodicity  to 
admit  into  sentences.  When  and  to  what  extent  should 
the  sense  be  suspended?  Evidently  a  periodic  sen- 
tence has  an  advantage  in  holding  the  reader's  atten- 
tion to  the  end.  A  loose  sentence  offers  one  or  more 
places  where  sense  is  complete  and  hence  gives  an  op- 
portunity for  the  attention  to  wander.  Long  periodic 
sentences  are  likely  to  be  artificial  and  somewhat  pom- 
pous. Long  loose  sentences  are  likely  to  be  vague, 
disconnected,  and  rhetorically  unprincipled,  yet  loose 
sentences  are  natural  to  our  language,  and  form  the 
bulk  of  our  discourse.  It  requires  no  effort  to  make 
a  sentence  loose;  it  often  requires  considerable  pains 
to  make  a  sentence  periodic.  Before  it  is  begun,  the 
writer  must  see  where  it  will  end.  Practice  in  writing 
periodic  sentences  is,  therefore,  helpful  to  skill  in  sen- 
tence structure,  and  an  appreciable  degree  of  periodic- 
ity is  necessary  for  Emphasis.  In  practice,  then,  write 
a  good  many  periodic  sentences.    Test  sentences  to  see 


Different  Forms  179 

if  their  force  cannot  be  increased  by  suspending  their 
sense  for  a  longer  space. 

11.  Another  classification  of  sentences — declarative, 
imperative,  interrogative,  and  exclamative — need  not 
detain  us  long.  Most  written  sentences  are  declarative. 
An  imperative  sentence  is  needed  only  when  there  is  a 
command ;  and  an  exclamative  sentence  should  be  used 
only  when  there  is  something  worth  exclaiming  about. 
Interrogative  sentences  are  required  more  frequently, 
and  are  used  not  only  to  ask  questions  but  also  to  give 
emphasis  and  a  variety  of  expression  to  the  thought. 
Thus,  in  the  selection  from  Hawthorne  in  Chapter  i, 
Exercise  3,  one  sentence  is  interrogative,  though  there 
is  no  genuine  question  to  ask. 

What  is  more  melancholy  than  the  old  apple  trees  that 
linger  about  the  spot  where  once  stood  a  homestead,  but 
where  there  is  now  only  a  ruined  chimney  rising  out  of 
the  grassy  and  weed-grown  cellar? 

12.  In  choosing  between  the  various  kinds  of  sen- 
tences, the  student  needs  to  consider  the  demands  of 
his  subject  and  reader,  and  to  remember  that  the  struc- 
ture of  every  sentence  should  express  the  relations  of 
its  ideas,  and  at  the  same  time  be  suited  to  its  place 
in  the  paragraph.  There  is  probably  more  danger  that 
his  sentences  will  be  too  simple,  too  short,  and  too 
loose,  than  that  they  will  be  too  complex,  too  long, 
and  too  periodic ;  but  he  should  seek  to  understand  the 
value  of  each  form  and  learn  to  use  them  all.  But  all 
this  care  will  be  of  no  avail  unless  his  sentences  are 
grammatically  correct. 


i8o  Sentences 


EXERCISES 


While  studying  the  composition  of  sentences,  the 
class  should  write  short  themes  regularly.  These 
should  not  be  over  a  paragraph  or  two  in  length,  in 
order  that  attention  may  be  centered  on  the  sentences. 
I.  Break  up  the  following  long  sentences  into  short 
ones;  making  omissions  or  adding  connectives  as  may 
be  necessary. 

I.  It  happened  one  day  about  noon,  going  towards  my 
boat,  I  was  exceedingly  surprised  with  the  print  of  a 
man's  naked  foot  on  the  shore,  which  was  very  plain  to 
be  seen  in  the  sand :  I  stood  like  one  thunderstruck,  or  as 
if  I  had  seen  an  apparition ;  I  listened,  I  looked  round  me, 
I  could  hear  nothing,  nor  see  any  thing;  I  went  up  to  a 
rising  ground  to  look  farther;  I  went  up  the  shore  and 
down  the  shore,  but  it  was  all  one,  I  could  see  no  other 
impression  but  that  one,  I  went  to  it  again  to  see  if  there 
were  any  more,  and  to  observe  if  it  might  not  be  my 
fancy ;  but  there  was  no  room  for  that,  for  there  was  ex- 
actly the  very  print  of  a  foot,  toes,  heel,  and  every  part  of 
a  foot ;  how  it  came  thither,  I  knew  not,  nor  could  in  the 
least  imagine.  2.  But  after  innumerable  fluttering 
thoughts,  like  a  man  perfectly  confused  and  out  of  myself, 
I  came  home  to  my  fortification,  not  feeling,  as  we  say, 
the  ground  I  went  on,  but  terrified  to  the  last  degree, 
looking  behind  me  at  every  two  or  three  steps,  mistaking 
every  bush  and  tree,  and  fancying  every  stump  at  a  dis- 
tance to  be  a  man  ;  nor  is  it  possible  to  describe  how  many 
various  shapes  affrighted  imagination  represented  things 
to  me  in ;  how  many  wild  ideas  were  found  every  moment 


Different  Forms  i8i 

in  my  fancy,  and  what  strange,  unaccountable  whimsies 
came  into  my  thoughts  by  the  way. 

Daniel  Defoe:  Robinson  Crusoe.     1719. 

3.  Amongst  other  discourse,  and  deploring  the  sad 
condition  of  our  Navy,  as  now  governed  by  unexperi- 
enced men  since  this  Revolution,  he  mentioned  what  ex- 
ceeding advantage  we  of  this  nation  had  by  being  the 
first  who  built  frigates,  the  first  of  which  ever  built  was 
that  vessel  which  was  afterwards  called  The  Constant 
Warwick,  and  was  the  work  of  Pett  of  Chatham,  for  a 
trial  of  making  a  vessel  that  would  sail  swiftly;  it  was 
built  with  low  decks,  the  guns  lying  near  the  water,  and 
was  so  light  and  swift  of  sailing,  that  in  a  short  time  he 
told  us  she  had,  ere  the  Dutch  war  was  ended,  taken  as 
much  money  from  privateers  as  would  have  laden  her ; 
and  that  more  such  being  built  did  in  a  year  or  two  scour 
the  Channel  from  those  of  Dunkirk  and  others  which  had 
exceedingly  infested  it. 

4.  He  added  that  it  would  be  the  best  and  only  infal- 
lible expedient  to  be  masters  of  the  sea,  and  able  to  de- 
stroy the  greatest  navy  of  any  enemy,  if  instead  of  build- 
ing huge  great  ships  and  second  and  third  rates,  they 
would  leave  off  building  such  high  decks,  which  were  for 
nothing  but  to  gratify  gentlemen  commanders,  who  must 
have  all  their  effeminate  accommodations,  and  for  pomp ; 
that  it  would  be  the  ruin  of  our  fleets  if  such  persons  were 
continued  in  command,  they  neither  having  experience 
nor  being  capable  of  learning,  because  they  would  not 
submit  to  the  fatigue  and  inconvenience  which  those 
who  were  bred  seamen  would  undergo,  in  those  so  other- 
wise useful  swift  frigates. 

John  Evelyn  :  The  Diary,     1690. 

2.  Reconstruct  each  of  the  following  paragraphs, 
combining  the  short  sentences  into  several  longer  ones. 
Omit  or  add  connectives  as  may  be  necessary. 


1 8  2  Sentences 

Evidently  that  gate  is  never  opened.  The  long  grass 
and  the  great  hemlocks  grow  close  against  it.  If  it  were 
opened  it  is  so  rusty  that  great  force  would  be  required 
to  turn  it  on  its  hinges.  This  would  be  likely  to  pull  down 
the  square  stone-built  pillars.  And  it  would  work  to  the 
detriment  of  the  two  stone  lionesses  which  grin  with  a 
carnivorous  affability.  Beneath  them  is  a  coat  of  arms 
surmounting  the  pillars.  It  would  be  easy  enough,  by 
the  aid  of  the  nicks  in  the  stone  pillars,  to  climb  over  the 
brick  wall  with  its  smooth  stone  coping.  But  by  putting 
one  eye  close  to  the  rusty  bars  of  the  gate,  we  can  see  the 
house  well  enough,  and  all  but  the  very  corners  of  the 
grassy  enclosure. 

So  I  led  the  way  into  the  kitchen  garden.  It  was  in  the 
first  promise  of  a  summer  profuse  in  vegetables  and 
fruits.  Perhaps  it  was  not  so  much  cared  for  as  other 
parts  of  the  property.  But  it  was  more  attended  to  than 
most  kitchen  gardens  belonging  to  farm-houses.  There 
were  borders  of  flowers  along  each  side  of  the  gravel 
walks.  There  was  an  old  sheltering  wall  on  the  north 
side  covered  with  tolerably  choice  fruit-trees.  There  was 
a  slope  down  to  the  fish  pond  at  the  end,  where  there 
were  great  strawberry  beds.  Raspberry  bushes  and  rose 
bushes  grew  wherever  there  was  a  space.  It  seemed  a 
chance  which  had  been  planted.  Long  rows  of  peas 
stretched  at  right  angles  from  the  main  walk.  I  saw 
Phillis  stooping  down  among  them  before  she  saw  us. 
As  soon  as  she  heard  our  cranching  steps  on  the  gravel, 
she  stood  up.  Shading  her  eyes  from  the  sun,  she  recog- 
nized us.  She  was  quite  still  for  a  moment.  Then  she 
came  slowly  towards  us,  blushing  a  little  from  evident 
shyness.     I  had  never  seen  Phillis  shy  before. 

3»    Reconstruct  the  following  loose  sentences,  making 
them  more  periodic. 

I.  There  are  ten  or  twelve  shafts,  but  seldom  are  all  run  at  the 
same  time,  either  on  account  of  lack  of  grain,  or,  more  often,  be- 
cause there  is  not  enough  water  in  the  creek. 


Different  Forms  183 

2.  Bags  of  flour  stand  on  all  sides  in  the  mill-room. 

3.  A  wide  platform  runs  along  the  front  side,  on  which,  at  all 
times,  are  seen  the  bags  of  grain  brought  to  be  ground  into  flour. 

4.  The  long-expected  day  arrived  at  last  after  weeks  of  wait- 
ing. 

5.  Some  people  make  a  living  by  caring  for  household  pets, 
a  majority  of  them  women. 

6.  Her  studio  was  a  delightful  spot;  it  hardly  seemed  to  be- 
long to  the  actual  world  but  was  rather  the  outward  type  of  a 
poet's  imagination. 

7.  The  result  of  the  battle  of  Delium  was  far  more  important 
than  the  fate  of  the  comedy  of  "  The  Knights  "  to  an  Athenian,  in 
the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

8.  Even  Fox  had  paid  to  the  illustrious  tribunal  the  compli- 
ment of  wearing  a  bag  and  sword,  though  generally  so  regardless 
of  his  appearance  —  this  the  collectors  of  gossip  did  not  fail  to 
remark. 

9.  There  appeared  the  high-souled  Windham,  the  ingenious, 
the  chivalrous,  the  finest  gentleman  of  the  age,  his  form  devel- 
oped by  every  manly  exercise,  his  face  beaming  with  intelligence 
and  spirit,  his  eyes  reverentially  fixed  on  Burke. 

4.    Amplify  the  following  simple  sentences  by  the  ad- 
dition of  modifying  phrases  and  clauses. 

1.  The  opening  sentence  of  a  paragraph  should  usu- 
ally be  short. 

2.  Long  sentences  may  express  intricate  thought. 

3.  A  balanced  sentence  is  often  emphatic. 

4.  You  should  avoid  exclamatory  sentences. 

5.  Good  style  with  bad  sentences  is  impossible. 

6.  The  commonest  objects  are  vividly  described  by 
Dickens. 

7.  Dickens  preaches  brotherly  kindness  for  the  poor. 

8.  "  Nicholas  Nickleby  "  established  Dickens'  power 
as  a  master  of  dialogue. 

9.  At  last  the  referee  blew  his  whistle. 
ID.     We  left  the  village. 


1 84 


Sentences 


5.  Examine  the  sentences  in  the  last  three  paragraphs 
of  this  chapter.  How  many  are  periodic?  How  many 
are  very  loose? 

6.  Analyze  the  sentences  in  a  paragraph  in  one  of 
Macaulay's  Essays.  Specify  whether  each  is  simple, 
complex,  long,  short,  loose,  periodic,  balanced.  How 
does  he  vary  the  kinds  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  the  short 
sentences  ?  of  the  long  ?  What  other  facts  do  you  no- 
tice about  his  sentences?  Analyze  paragraphs  from 
Hawthorne  and  Goldsmith  in  the  same  way.  The  fol- 
lowing analysis  of  a  paragraph  from  Lockhart's  "  Life 
of  Scott "  will  serve  as  an  example. 

I.  Such  a  son  and  parent  could  hardly  fail  in  any  of 
the  other  social  relations.  2.  No  man  was  a  firmer  or 
more  indefatigable  friend.  3.  I  know  not  he  ever  lost 
one;  and  a  few  with  whom,  during  the  energetic  middle 
stage  of  life,  from  political  differences  or  other  accidental 
circumstances,  he  lived  less  familiarly,  had  all  gathered 
round  him,  and  renewed  the  full  warmth  of  early  affec- 
tion in  his  later  days.  4.  There  was  enough  to  dignify 
the  connection  in  their  eyes;  but  nothing  to  chill  it  on 
either  side.  5.  The  imagination  that  so  completely  mas- 
tered him  when  he  chose  to  give  her  the  rein,  was  kept 
under  most  determined  control  when  any  of  the  positive 
obligations  of  active  life  came  into  question.  6.  A  high 
and  pure  sense  of  duty  presided  over  whatever  he  had  to 
do  as  a  citizen  and  magistrate ;  and  as  a  landlord,  he  con- 
sidered his  estate  as  an  extension  of  his  hearth. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES 

1.  Short,  simple,  periodic,  states  paragraph-topic, — Scott's 
social  relations. 

2.  Short,  simple,  periodic. 


Different  Forms  185 

3.  Long,  compound  and  complex,  loose,  amplifying  the  thought 
of  2. 

4.  Short,  compound,  loose,  balanced.    . 

5.  Long,    complex,    periodic,    parallel   clauses   introduced    by 
"  when." 

6.  Long,  compound,   first  part  periodic  to   "  citizen,"   second 
part  periodic  throughout. 

Sentences  varied  in  length  and  structure;  in  general,  periodic. 

7.  In  the  themes  assigned  to  you  for  criticism — (i) 
What  sentences  are  too  long?  How  would  you  divide 
them?  (2)  What  sentences  are  too  short?  How 
would  you  combine  them  with  others?  (3)  What  sen- 
tences are  too  loose  ?  How  would  you  make  them  more 
periodic?  (4)  What  other  alterations  would  you 
make? 


II 

8.  In  the  themes  assigned  to  you  for  criticism,  con- 
sider the  following  questions  in  addition  to  those 
asked  in  Exercise  7.  ( i )  What  sentences  seem  to  you 
to  have  Unity?  (2)  What  seem  to  lack  Unity ?  Sug- 
gest improvements.  (3)  What  conclusions  do  you 
draw  in  regard  to  Unity  in  sentences? 

9.  In  what  ways  is  Unity  violated  in  the  following 
sentences?     Suggest  alterations. 

I.  One  day  Judge  Pyncheon  came  over  and  insisted  on  seeing 
Clifford;  while  Hepzibah  was  hunting  for  him,  CHfford  saw  the 
Judge;  soon  he  came  out,  and  told  her  to  put  her  things  on,  he 
had  his  on,  and  together  they  went  to  the  railway  station,  boarded 
a  train,  and  took  a  short  journey;  but  all  the  time  Clifford  talked 
of  a  man  in  an  arm  chair  with  a  blood-stain  on  his  bosom. 


1 86  Sentences 

2.  The  color  of  the  house  was  a  reddish  brown,  dingy  with 
years.  A  low  veranda  ran  across  the  front.  It  was  an  afternoon 
late  in  October.  The  air  was  warm  and  damp.  The  sky  was 
smothered  up  in  gray,  opaque  clouds. 

3.  During  three  months  spent  at  a  Wisconsin  farm,  on  the 
almost  daily  drives  through  the  country,  my  interest  was  aroused 
by  an  old  mill  in  a  village  consisting  of  about  a  dozen  houses,  a 
few  bams,  and  a  store,  which  was  perhaps  the  most  important 
feature  to  most  persons. 

4.  It  took  a  very  few  minutes  to  reach  the  woods.  A  path  led 
into  it.  We  walked  down  there.  Immense  trees  stood  on  every 
side,  and  the  underbrush  was  thick. 

5.  Johnson's  works  have  lived  and  will  live  on  account  of  his 
charming  personality,  although  music  had  no  effect  on  him,  being 
unable  to  distinguish  tunes,  and  when  a  dear  friend  of  his  married 
an  Italian  musician,  he  could  never  forgive  her. 

6.  Soon  the  chapel  bell  brought  the  happy  chatter  to  a  hush, 
and  the  students  gathered  to  their  familiar  service,  after  which 
they  broke  up  into  little  groups  and  gradually  left  the  college 
halls ;  and  the  opening  day  at  college  was  over. 


% 


CHAPTER  XV 
UNITY  IN  SENTENCES 

1.  The  principles  of  composition  aid  in  giving  sen- 
tences real  structure.  They  should  be  built  firmly 
together  like  so  many  houses,  not  thrown  together  like 
so  many  piles  of  stones.  To  be  a  structure,  a  sentence 
must  have  Unity.  It  must  not  be  a  fragment,  or  an 
aimless  collection  of  phrases,  or  a  combination  of  ir- 
relevant parts.  It  must  combine  all  its  parts  into  an 
organic  whole. 

2.  Each  sentence  should  be  able  to  stand  by  itself — 
the  expression  of  a  complete  unit  of  thought.  It  may 
contain  only  one  idea,  expressed  tersely.  It  may  contain 
a  dozen  ideas,  but  these  must  be  so  closely  related  to 
one  another  that  they  are  parts  of  a  whole.  In  each 
of  the  two  following  compound  sentences  several  ideas 
are  expressed,  but  each  sentence  has  Unity,  for  in  the 
first  the  two  independent  clauses  unite  to  tell  what 
Wallingford  did,  and  in  the  second  the  three  clauses 
unite  to  tell  what  Dickson  did. 

Wallingford  leaped  toward  his  friend  with  a  cry  of  joy ; 
they  were  in  each  other's  arms  like  a  pair  of  Frenchmen. 
As  for  Dickson,  he  sank  to  the  floor  like  a  melted  candle ; 
his  legs  would  not  hold  him  up;  he  gathered  strength 
enough  to  crawl  toward  Wallingford  and  clutch  him  by 
the  knees. 

187 


1 88  Sentences 

Subordinate  ideas  may  be  added,  qualifying  and  am- 
plifying the  main  idea,  but  they  should  be  so  arranged 
that  they  do  not  obscure  the  prominence  of  the  main 
idea.  The  following  series  of  sentences  shows  how 
subordinate  ideas  may  be  added  to  a  sentence  without 
destroying  Unity. 

1.  A  sentence  should  have  Unity. 

2.  A  sentence,  like  a  long  composition  or  a  paragraph, 
should  have  unity. 

3.  A  sentence,  like  a  long  composition  or  a  paragraph, 
should,  both  in  thought  and  expression,  have  Unity. 

4.  No  matter  how  many  phrases  and  clauses  it  may 
contain,  a  sentence,  like  a  long  composition  or  a  para- 
graph, should,  both  in  thought  and  expression,  in  ideas 
and  in  structure,  possess  that  fundamental  requisite  of 
all  forms  of  art.  Unity. 

In  these  sentences  the  modifying  details  are  placed  be- 
tween the  subject  and  the  predicate,  thus  making  the 
sentences  periodic.  Periodic  sentences  are  more  likely 
to  have  Unity  than  loose,  and  short  sentences  than 
long ;  but  a  long  loose  sentence  may  have  Unity  as  well 
as  another. 

3«  Unity  helps  the  reader.  He  sees  a  paragraph 
divided  into  sentences,  separated  from  one  another  by 
spaces  and  indicated  by  capitals  and  periods.  He  takes 
in  the  thought  of  a  sentence  as  a  unit  and  almost  at 
a  glance.  It  is  important,  therefore,  for  the  writer 
to  separate  his  ideas,  discover  those  that  are  most 
closely  related,  subordinate  some  to  others,  connect 
some,  and  thus  rearrange  his  ideas  into  units  of 
thought.     Each  unit  of  thought,  thus  redetermined, 


Unity  189 


may  well  be  presented  to  the  reader  as  a  single  sentence. 
4»  In  order  to  trace  this  process  of  organizing  thought 
into  sentences,  let  us  turn  to  a  group  of  four  sentences 
in  the  selection  from  Hawthorne  in  Chapter  i,  Exer- 
cise 3.  The  ideas  in  these  sentences  might  be  separated 
in  this  fashion: 

1.  It  is  pleasant  to  think  of  him.    (The  old  minister.) 

2.  He  walks  among  the  trees. 

3.  The  afternoon  is  quiet. 

4.  It  is  early  autumn. 

5.  He  picks  up  here  and  there  an  apple. 

6.  He  observes  the  branches. 

7.  They  are  heavily  laden. 

8.  He  computes  the  number  of  empty  flour  barrels 
that  will  be  filled  with  their  burden. 

9.  He  loves  each  tree  as  if  it  had  been  his  own  child. 
ID.    An  orchard  has  a  relation  to  mankind. 

11.  It  readily  connects  itself  with  matters  of  the  heart. 

12.  The  trees  possess  a  domestic  character. 

13.  They  have  lost  the  wild  nature  of  their  forest- 
kindred. 

14.  They  have  grown  humanized  by   receiving  the 
care  of  man. 

15.  They  have  also  grown  humanized  by  contributing 
to  man's  wants. 

5.  Here  are  fifteen  ideas  in  fifteen  sentences.  No 
sentence  contains  any  irrelevant  matter,  each  expresses 
one  idea.  Yet  many  of  these  sentences  are  so  closely 
connected  in  thought  that  to  separate  them  is  to  destroy 
rather  than  to  promote  Unity,  and  to  make  the  thought 
seem  disconnected  and  childish.  The  first  eight  deal 
with  the  picture  of  the  old  minister  in  the  orchard; 
and  of  these,  the  last  seven  may  properly  be  connected 


190  Sentences 

with  the  first  as  modifiers  of  "  him  "  (the  old  minis- 
ter). Then  by  means  of  a  right  subordination  of  parts 
we  shall  have  a  complete  idea  expressed.  Now,  what 
are  the  most  important  ideas  of  the  seven  subordi- 
nated?— evidently  those  most  directly  connected  with 
the  "  him  "  of  the  main  clause,  the  second,  fifth,  sixth, 
and  eighth.  So  the  second  and  fifth  become  participial 
phrases  modifying  "  him  ";  and  the  sixth  and  eighth, 
clauses  introduced  by  "  while,"  modifying  the  parti- 
ciples. Five  of  our  original  sentences  are  now  parts 
of  one  sentence ;  the  other  three  may  be  connected  with 
them.  The  third  and  fourth  become  phrases  modifying 
the  participle,  "walking,"  of  the  second;  and  the 
seventh  is  combined  with  the  object  of  the  verb,  "  ob- 
serves," in  the  sixth.  The  following  arrangement  of 
the  result  will  indicate  clearly  the  structure  of  the 
sentence. 

(i)     It  is  pleasant  to  think  of  him 
(2)     walking  among  the  trees 

(3)  in  the  quiet  afternoons 

(4)  of  early  autumn 

(5)    and  picking  up  here  and  there  an  early  windfall, 
(6)     while  he  observes 

(7)  how  heavily  the  branches  are  weighed 
down, 
(8)     and  computes  the  number  of  empty  flour 
barrels  that  will  be  filled  with  their  burden. 

6.  The  first  eight  sentences  are  thus  combined  into 
one  long  loose  sentence,  which  has  Unity  because  eight 
ideas  are  reorganized  into  one.  The  next  sentence  (9) 
expresses  an  idea  so  strongly  and  completely  that  it  may 


Unity 


191 


well  stand  by  itself  without  further  modifying.  More- 
over, it  marks  a  thought  distinct  from  what  precedes — 
it  tells  how  the  minister  felt  toward  his  trees. 

(9)  He  loved  each  tree,  doubtless,  as  if  it  had  been  his 
own  child. 

The  next  two  ideas  are  closely  connected,  dealing  with 
the  same  thought,  and  Hawthorne  unites  them  with 
an  "  and." 

(10)  An  orchard  has  a  relation  to  mankind, 

(11)  and  readily  connects  itself  with  matters  of  the 
heart. 

The  twelfth  sentence  introduces  a  new  idea,  and  this 
is  repeated,  explained,  and  amplified  in  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth.  The  last  two  (14,  15)  are 
so  closely  connected  in  thought  that  they  can  be  com- 
bined in  one  clause;  and  all  four  really  form  but  one 
complete  idea.  They  are  consequently  united  in  a  sin- 
gle sentence. 

(12)  The  trees  possess  a  domestic  character; 

(13)  they  have  lost  the  wild  nature  of  their  forest- 
kindred, 

(14)  and  have  grown  humanized  by  receiving  the 
care  of  man 

(15)  as  well  as  by  contributing  to  his  wants. 

7.  The  fifteen  ideas  with  which  we  started  have  been 
organized  into  four  units  of  thought  and  expressed 
in  four  sentences.  Each  sentence  has  a  definite  struc- 
ture, and  is  an  organic  whole. 


192  Sentences 

8.  Whenever,  after  this  fashion,  the  student  tries  to 
organize  his  thought  into  sentences  in  accord  with  the 
principle  of  Unity,  he  will  find  that  by  connecting 
closely  related  ideas  he  increases  the  Coherence  of  his 
theme,  and  by  subordinating  the  less  important  he  im- 
proves the  Emphasis.  As  soon  as  the  sentences  become 
well  constructed  wholes,  the  structure  of  the  paragraph 
is  improved,  and  the  expression  of  the  thought  gains 
greatly  in  clearness  and  force.  A  comparison  of  the 
four  sentences  from  Hawthorne  with  the  fifteen  of 
our  analysis  shows  also  that,  while  both  groups  have 
the  same  ideas  and  the  same  words,  those  from  Haw- 
thorne give  us  greater  pleasure;  they  have  more  of  the 
quality  of  ease,  charm,  beauty.  If  a  style  is  to  at- 
tract and  delight  us  as  well  as  to  inform  and  interest 
us,  the  sentences  must  have  Unity. 

9.  So  much  for  the  manner  in  which  Unity  may  be 
preserved  in  various  kinds  of  sentences,  simple,  com- 
pound, or  complex,  long  or  short,  loose  or  periodic ;  we 
may  now  note  some  ways  in  which  Unity  is  most  fre- 
quently violated.  There  are  two  classes  of  violations 
for  which  the  student  will  need  to  keep  a  sharp  look-out 
in  revising  his  sentences. 

10.  First,  sentences  that  contain  only  a  fragment  of 
an  idea  violate  Unity.  Such  sentences,  like  the  first 
eight  in  the  list  o.f  fifteen  on  page  189,  may  con- 
tain relevant  ideas,  but  they  do  not  contain  whole 
ideas.  Often,  as  in  those  eight,  a  series  of  state- 
ments closely  connected  in  thought  should  be  grouped 
together  in  a  single  sentence.     No  one  of  the  state- 


Unity 


193 


merits  is  important  enough  or  complete  enough  to 
occupy  a  full  period.  Such  fragments  are  often 
introduced  by  "  and  "  or  "  but,"  as  in  the  following 
examples. 

About  five  minutes  later,  the  rest  of  us  started.  But, 
not  finding  the  right  track  at  once,  we  lost  time  in  search- 
ing for  it. 

We  went  over  hills  and  through  ravines.  And  every- 
where there  were  flowers. 

"  And  "  and  "  but  "  are  properly  used  to  connect  coor- 
dinate clauses,  closely  connected  in  thought;  but  it  is 
always  a  question  to  be  tested  by  Unity  whether  two 
clauses  should  be  separated  into  two  sentences,  or 
should  be  united  as  main  and  subordinate  clause,  or  as 
two  coordinate  clauses.  Rarely  should  a  sentence 
be  introduced  by  one  of  these  coordinating  conjunc- 
tions. Still  more  fragmentary  are  those  which  are 
really  not  sentences  at  all  but  stray  phrases  or  clauses. 
In  testing  sentences,  then,  one  should  make  sure  that 
there  are  no  phrases  or  clauses  masquerading  as  sen- 
tences, and  no  sentences  that  might  better  be  joined 
together. 

II.  Second,  long  loose  sentences  offer  many  chances 
for  running  off  the  subject.  Beginners  are  likely  to 
string  one  idea  after  another,  throwing  in  a  few  con- 
nectives, "  and,"  "  but,"  and  "  as,"  and  losing  all  no- 
tion of  constructing  a  sentence  to  express  a  unit  of 
thought.  The  lack  of  Unity  is  apparent  in  the  follow- 
ing examples,  the  first  two  from  a  newspaper,  the  other 
two  from  students'  themes. 
13 


194  Sentences 

At  any  rate  it  was  on  the  sea-border,  for  the  tall  brick 
house,  in  which  the  simple  plot  of  the  story  unwinds,  has 
a  garden,  and  beyond  the  garden  the  sea,  and  the  inmates 
are  *'  the  Blyth  girls,"  Phebe  and  Vesta,  ancient  maidens, 
who  live  there  alone,  except  for  their  servant-maid,  "  Di- 
ploma Crotty,  help,  tyrant,  governor-in-chief  of  the 
kitchen,"  until  they  take  in  the  fascinating  young  Dr. 
Strong,  who  has  come  to  take  up  the  practice  of  the  old 
retiring  physician.  Dr.  Stedman. 

He  is  a  true  woman's  hero, — and  marches,  or  sails,  into 
the  good  graces  of  all  the  women  and  most  of  the  men  in 
the  story, — the  latter  being  only  numerous  enough  to 
carry  along  the  male  parts,  and,  indeed,  the  customary  life 
of  quiet  New  England  villages  is  mostly  carried  on  by 
women,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  tales  of  Miss  Jewett  and 
Miss  Wilkins,  with  the  aid  of  a  doctor,  a  deacon,  a  par- 
son and  a  few  minor  personages,  such  as  Ithuriel  Butters 
in  the  present  case. 

Gabriel  and  his  father  (Basil  the  blacksmith)  were 
taken  on  a  separate  boat  then  after  Evangeline  was  taken 
captive  with  the  priest  and  after  they  got  to  land  Evan- 
geline and  the  priest  wandered  around  the  country  look- 
ing for  her  lover  until  one  day  they  found  where  her 
lover  lived  and  he  was  not  at  home  so  the  next  morning 
after  they  had  met  his  father  they  went  to  look  for  her 
lover  and  she  found  him  in  a  hospital  dying. 

They  were  to  be  married  when  English  officers  came 
over  and  ordered  the  people  out  of  the  place,  they  were 
sent  away  on  ships  to  another  country  and  Evangeline  and 
Gabriel  were  separated,  they  were  both  sent  to  this  coun- 
try but  were  on  different  ships  and  could  not  find  each 
other  when  they  arrived. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  writer,  v^hen  he  started, 
had  no  idea  where  he  was  coming  out.  A  number  of 
slightly  connected  ideas  are  jumbled  in  a  hodge-podge. 
In  revision,  a  long  involved  sentence  or  one  containing 


Unity 


195 


unrelated  parts  should  be  separated  into  several;  and, 
if  necessary,  the  form  of  these  should  be  recast. 
12.  The  principle  of  Unity,  we  have  seen,  requires  that 
a  sentence  be  an  organic  whole.  Our  ideas  are  to  be  so 
organized  that  those  closely  related  will  be  combined 
into  a  well-built  structure,  expressing  completely  one 
idea,  while  ideas  that  have  importance  and  distinction 
enough  will  stand  alone.  The  reader,  in  taking  in  a 
sentence  at  a  glance,  should  receive  a  real,  complete 
unit  of  thought.  Fragmentary,  incomplete  ideas  must 
not  stand  alone  as  sentences;  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
congruous, irrelevant,  or  slightly  related  ideas  must 
not  be  joined  together  in  one  sentence.  If  a  writer 
knows  well  what  he  wants  to  say,  there  will  be  no  dif- 
ficulty in  making  his  sentences  all  units  of  thought, 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  them  great  variety  of 
structure. 

EXERCISES 


I.    Correct  the  following  sentences  so  that  they  will 
conform  to  the  principle  of  Unity. 

1.  And  they  sent  Gabriel  away,  and  he  was  not  heard  of  for 
many  years;  and  after  Evangeline's  father  had  died  Evangeline 
and  the  priest  wandered  around  until  they  found  Gabriel  in  a 
hospital  dying  with  the  fever,  and  when  Evangeline  died  they 
buried  her  beside  her  lover. 

2.  A  shrill  buoyant  whistle  aroused  him,  and  he  started  up 
only  to  sink  back  on  the  log  when  he  heard  voices,  for  he  kept  out 


196 


Sentences 


of  the  way  of  all  the  men  except  Joe  Clark,  who  had  shown  him- 
self a  true  friend  ever  since  the  day  that  Harold  tried  to  ride  a 
half -broken  broncho  to  show  the  men  that  he  was  not  a  baby,  and 
he  had  stuck  on  well,  but  finally  a  sideward  plunge  and  a  back- 
ward jerk  had  left  Harold  a  heap  on  the  ground, 

3.  In  front  of  the  dining  room  is  the  library.  All  the  rooms 
have  fireplaces,  but  the  one  in  the  library  is  the  largest.  Here 
the  long  winter  evenings  are  spent.  Some  of  the  books  are  old 
and  yellow  with  age.  The  walls  of  this  room  are  hung  with 
many  old  relics.     One  could  spend  hours  looking  at  them. 

4.  There  was  a  little  valley  here.  A  brook  flowed  through  the 
middle.     Part  of  this  valley  was  cultivated. 

5.  Gilbert  loved  Rebecca  and  he  went  to  visit  her,  but  Rebecca 
would  rather  throw  herself  out  of  the  window  than  to  be  in  his 
power,  and  this  makes  him  admire  her  all  the  more. 

2.  Each  of  the  following  groups  of  sentences  is  to  be 
reorganized  into  sentences  in  conformity  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  Unity. 

I.  I.  A  gate  at  the  right  of  the  barn-yard  opens  on  the  road.  2. 
This  extends  in  an  irregular  course.  3.  It  narrows  to  a  path  of 
gold.  4.  At  last  it  loses  itself  in  the  woods.  5.  A  zig-zag  rail 
fence  extends  along  either  side.  6.  On  both  sides  of  the  road 
are  strips  of  vegetation.  7.  Rank  weeds  mingle  with  blooming 
golden-rod  and  Spanish  needle.  8.  The  fence  corners  are  filled 
with  blackberry  briars.  9.  Far  up  the  road  are  children.  10. 
They  move  about  gathering  the  ripe  berries.  11.  Their  tin  pails 
reflect  the  sun  with  a  dazzling  glare.  12.  On  the  right  of  the 
road  is  a  hill.  13.  On  this,  just  before  the  wood  is  reached,  is  a 
little  white  church.  14.  Back  of  it  is  the  graveyard  with  its  white 
stones.  15.  Some  of  these  are  mouldy.  16.  Some  lean  to  the 
earth. 

II.  I.  Mile  after  mile,  knot  after  knot  is  covered.  2.  The 
regularity  is  monotonous.  3.  Still  the  relative  positions  of  the 
racers  are  unchanged.  4.  Now  one  can  see  the  smoking  chimneys 
of  Milwaukee.  5.  The  great  elevators,  the  tall  buildings  loom  up 
in  the  distance.    6.  The  laborer's  corn-cob  pipe  goes  out.    7.  The 


Unity 


197 


wealthy  gentleman  leaves  his  stateroom.  8.  All  crowd  to  the 
rail.  9.  The  tug,  sent  out  to  tow  in  the  Christopher  Columbus, 
is  left  far  in  her  wake.  10.  Both  boats  steer  for  the  harbor  en- 
trance. II.  The  dwarf  has  the  advantage  in  distance.  12.  But 
the  engines  of  the  giant  respond  to  the  occasion.  13.  She  pushes 
her  nose  in  among  the  long  rows  of  wharves.  14.  Her  whistle 
bellows  forth  a  hoarse  shout  of  triumph.  15.  The  siren  of  the 
yacht  answers  shrilly.  16.  This  is  in  token  of  submission  and 
congratulation.     17.  The  race  is  over. 

III.  I.  Colonel  Waters  was  a  quick  daring  man.  2.  He  dis- 
covered a  poor  barber.  3.  The  barber  had  come  over  the  river 
with  a  small  skiff  the  previous  night.  4.  These  two  were  joined 
by  the  Prior  of  Aramante.  5.  He  had  gallantly  offered  his  ser- 
vices. 6.  They  crossed  the  water  unperceived.  7.  In  half  an 
hour  they  returned  with  three  large  barges.  8.  Meanwhile 
eighteen  guns  were  placed  in  battery  on  the  convent  height.  9. 
And  General  John  Murray  was  sent  three  miles  up  the  stream  to 
the  Barca  de  Avintas.  10.  The  14th  dragoons  and  two  guns  were 
with  him.  11.  He  had  orders  to  seek  for  boats  and  pass  there  if 
possible.  12.  When  Waters  came  back  with  the  barges,  some 
English  troops  followed  Murray  in  support.  13.  Others  ap- 
proached the  river  close  under  the  Serra  rock.  14.  It  was  then 
ten  o'clock.  15.  The  French  were  tranquil  and  unsuspicious. 
16.  The  English  were  wondering  and  expectant.  17.  And  Sir 
Arthur  was  told  that  one  boat  had  already  reached  the  point  of 
passage.     18.  *'  Well,  let  the  men  cross,"  was  the  reply. 

IV.  I.  From  the  outset  the  government  of  the  township  was 
vested  in  the  Town-meeting.  2.  This  institution  in  its  present 
form  is  said  to  be  peculiar  to  New  England.  3.  But,  as  we 
shall  see,  it  has  close  analogies  with  local  self-governing  bodies 
in  other  ages  and  countries.  4.  Once  in  each  year  a  meeting  is 
held.  5.  This  is  usually  in  the  month  of  March.  6.  Every  adult 
male  residing  within  the  limits  of  the  township  is  expected  to  be 
present.  7.  And  he  is  at  liberty  to  address  the  meeting.  8.  He 
may  vote  on  any  question  that  may  come  up. 

3.  In  the  following  theme  almost  every  sentence  con- 
sists of  two  clauses  connected  by  "  and  "  or  "  but." 


198 


Sentences 


Rewrite,  reorganizing  the  sentences,  and  subordinating 

parts  as  may  be  demanded  by  the  principle  of  Unity. 

There  are  many  objections  to  the  work  in  the  gymnasium,  and 
it  is  undoubtedly  often  inconvenient  and  tedious.  The  benefits, 
however,  are  many  and  seem  to  outweigh  the  objections.  If  left 
to  their  own  devices,  few  of  the  students  would  take  sufficient  ex- 
ercise, but  in  the  gjonnasium  they  get  systematic  exercise  every 
other  day.  This  improves  their  circulation,  and  a  better  circula- 
tion keeps  them  from  catching  cold  easily.  The  exercise  also 
keeps  their  muscles  strong  and  pliable,  and  trains  their  bodies  to 
obey  the  dictates  of  the  mind.  The  work  is  compulsory,  and  this 
is  an  objection  to  it  in  the  minds  of  many  students.  If  it  were 
not  compulsory,  however,  they  would  not  get  exercise  regularly 
and  systematically,  and  the  benefits  of  which  I  have  spoken  would 
be  lost.  We  need  regular  drill  for  our  bodies  as  well  as  for  our 
minds. 

4.  Examine  the  selections  quoted  in  the  text  of 
Chapter  6.  Does  each  sentence  conform  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  Unity  ?  How  is  Unity  secured  ?  Three  points 
should  be  especially  considered:  (i)  If  the  sentence  is 
long,  does  every  part  have  an  organic  relation  to  the 
main  idea?  (2)  If  the  sentence  is  short,  does  it  ex- 
press an  idea  with  completeness?  (3)  If  the  sentence 
is  compound,  should  any  of  the  coordinate  parts  be 
made  subordinate  ? 

5-  In  the  themes  assigned  to  you  for  criticism,  answer 
the  three  questions  given  in  Exercise  4  for  each  sen- 
tence. Propose  changes  when  the  sentences  seem 
faulty. 

II 

6.  In  the  following  sentences  do  you  see  any  mistakes 
in  grammar  or  in  the  order  of  words  and  phrases  that 


Unity  199 

interfere  with  the  Coherence  of  the  sentences?  Re- 
write the  sentences,  making  the  necessary  corrections. 

1.  The  next  morning  Clifford,  Miss  Hepzibah's  brother,  came 
home  after  being  in  prison,  before  Phoebe  got  up. 

2.  The  old  walnut  desk  stands  on  a  platform,  elevated  several 
feet  above  the  floor,  somewhat  like  a  throne — such  a  lonesome 
place  for  the  teacher  to  occupy. 

3.  He  had  on  her  hat  covered  with  leaves  and  flowers  dan- 
gling around  his  neck. 

4.  I  realize  that  it  is  growing  late,  and  as  Neapolitan  cab- 
drivers  are  proverbially  slow,  I  call  to  the  driver,  "presto."  It 
being  the  only  word  meaning  to  hurry  that  I  know,  and  I  continue 
my  drive  to  the  volcano. 

5.  It  is  surrounded  by  dense  woods,  whose  beautiful  green  re- 
freshes the  eye  and  beautifies  the  scenery  about  it. 

6.  An  old  man  kindly  showed  us  the  way  to  the  house  which 
led  down  the  principal  street  and  to  one  running  off  from  it. 

7.  Resting  awhile  under  the  trees,  we  went  into  the  house. 

8.  Unluckily  we  found  but  two  chestnuts  here,  but  no  doubt 
more  had  fallen  in  the  brush  which  we  could  not  get. 

9.  Approaching  the  Blue  Ridge  mountains  from  the  south- 
western corner  of  North  Carolina,  a  very  steep  incline  is  reached. 

10.  Free  kindergartens  would  be  a  wise  investment  for  this 
city,  since  the  expense  would  not  exceed  the  sum  now  spent  for 
teaching  a  foreign  language,  there  being  plenty  of  children  ready 
and  eager  to  attend,  for  the  health  of  the  child  is  not  injured. 

11.  The  child  is  benefited,  being  imbued  with  a  desire  for  edu- 
cation, given  habits  of  order,  and  because  he  is  filled  with  ideals 
to  which  he  may  aspire. 

12.  I  would  first  see  a  girl  running  across  the  hall  to  meet 
some  one  of  her  dear  friends,  and  some  one  else  throw  her  arms 
around  the  neck  of  another. 

7.  In  themes  assigned  to  you,  select  sentences  that 
seem  to  you  incoherent.  Suggest  corrections.  From 
the  examination  of  these  sentences  and  those  in  Exer- 
cise 6,  what  rules  can  you  formulate  for  promoting 
Coherence  in  sentences? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
COHERENCE  IN  SENTENCE'S 

1.  The  principle  of  Coherence  guides  us  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  in  a  sen- 
tence. To  a  considerable  extent  this  arrangement  is 
fixed,  as  we  have  observed  in  Chapter  14,  by  good  use. 
In  some  short  sentences  only  one  arrangement  of  words 
is  possible;  in  many  sentences  only  slight  alterations 
in  the  order  of  words  are  permissible  in  conformity 
with  the  rules  of  grammar.  When  the  order  is  fixed 
by  good  use,  it  is  sure  to  be  a  natural,  sensible,  and 
coherent  order.  To  be  coherent,  we  must  be  gram- 
matical and  natural.  Any  awkward  or  unusual  con- 
struction breaks  the  continuity  of  thought;  any  mis- 
take in  grammar  obscures  the  exact  relation  of  one 
word  to  another. 

2.  The  order  of  words  depends  also  on  the  neigh- 
boring sentences.  You  are  not  writing  single  sentences 
that  are  to  stand  by  themselves,  but  sentences  that  are 
to  be  joined  together  to  form  a  paragraph.  The  words 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  will  not  only  be  co- 
herent within  the  sentence,  but  will  also  aid  in  making 
the  paragraph  coherent.  How  much  care  is  necessary 
to  secure  this  may  be  seen  by  turning  again  to  the 

200 


Coherence  201 

paragraph  from  "  The  Old  Manse  "  in  Chapter  i,  Ex- 
ercise 3. 
3-    The  first  sentence  is : 

The  Old  Manse !  We  had  almost  forgotten  it,  but  will 
return  thither  through  the  orchard. 

The  second  sentence  might  begin  in  either  of  these 
two  ways : 

The  last  clergyman  in  the  decHne  of  his  life  set  this 
out  .  .  . 

This  was  set  out  by  the  last  clergyman  in  the  decline 
of  his  life  ... 

Either  is  coherent  in  itself,  but  the  second  is  manifestly 
better  here,  because  the  opening  words,  "  This  was  set 
out,"  connect  themselves  closely  with  the  last  words 
of  the  preceding  sentence,  "  the  orchard."  This  sec- 
ond sentence  ends :  ^ 

.  .  .  trees  from  which  he  could  have  no  prospect  of 
gathering  fruit. 

Therefore  in  the  third  sentence,  the  clause,  "  Even  had 
that  been  the  case/'  properly  comes  first  because  it 
refers  to  the  last  clause  of  the  preceding  sentence. 
4.  Toward  the  end  of  the  paragraph,  again,  the  words 
that  begin  the  sentences  help  to  indicate  the  structure 
of  the  paragraph. 

7.  An  orchard  has  a  relation  to  mankind  .  .  . 

8.  The  trees  possess  a  domestic  character  .  .  . 


202  Sentences 

9.     There  is  so  much  individuahty  of  character,  too, 
among  apple  trees  .  .  . 

10.  One  is  harsh  and  crabbed  .  .  . 

11.  One  is  churhsh  and  ilHberal  .  .  . 

Four  of  these  sentences  begin  with  their  subjects,  and 
they  have  practically  the  same  subject — ''  tree  "  or 
''  trees."  They  have  a  uniformity  of  structure  in 
order  to  express  a  uniformity  of  thought.  The  ninth 
offers  just  enough  difference  from  this  uniformity  of 
structure  to  keep  it  from  being  monotonous.  A  fur- 
ther study  of  the  sentences  in  this  paragraph  from 
Hawthorne  or,  for  that  matter,  in  any  well-written 
paragraph,  will  illustrate  various  ways  by  which  the 
arrangement  of  words  in  the  separate  sentences  pro- 
motes the  coherence  of  the  thought  of  the  paragraph. 
We  have  already  seen  two  important  ways — first,  by 
beginning  a  sentence  with  a  phrase  or  clause  referring 
to  the  last  of  the  preceding  sentence;  and  second,  by 
giving  to  sentences  expressing  similar  ideas  similar  be- 
ginnings and  similar  structures. 

5'  If  you  will  look  again  at  the  selection  from  Haw- 
thorne you  will  find  many  sentences  in  which  the  order 
of  words  might  be  changed  without  violating  grammar 
or  interfering  with  the  connection  between  sentences. 
These  cases  illustrate  the  Coherence  of  the  sentences 
by  themselves.  In  the  fourth  sentence,  for  example, 
there  are  three  statements:  the  old  minister — (i) 
reached  the  age  of  ninety — (2)  ate  the  apples  for 
many  years — (3)  added  to  his  stipend  by  selling  the 
superfluity.     The  first,  since  it  is  less  important  than 


Coherence  203 

the  others  in  connection  with  the  general  subject,  the 
orchard,  is  made  a  subordinate  clause, — "  before  reach- 
ing his  patriarchal  age  of  ninety," — and  is  placed  where 
Coherence  demands,  next  to  the  words  with  which  it 
is  most  closely  connected  in  thought,  "  the  old  min- 
ister." Try  placing  this  clause  at  any  other  point, 
after  the  second  or  third  clause,  and  you  will  see  that 
the  sentence  becomes  incoherent. 

6.  In  the  eighth  sentence  of  this  same  paragraph  from 
Hawthorne  there  are  several  similar  ideas :  "  the  trees 
possess  a  domestic  character  " — "  they  have  lost  the 
wild  nature  of  their  forest-kindred " — "  and  have 
grown  humanized."  So  closely  connected  are  these 
ideas  that  they  are  combined  in  a  single  sentence,  ac- 
cording to  the  principle  of  Unity,  as  we  saw  in  the 
last  chapter.  These  similar  ideas  are  also  given  similar 
expression,  so  that  their  relations  to  one  another  are 
clearly  indicated,  as  the  principle  of  Coherence  re- 
quires. Further,  the  two  ways  in  which  the  trees  have 
grown  humanized  are  expressed  by  phrases  similar 
in  form :  "  by  receiving  the  care  of  man,"  "  by  con- 
tributing to  his  wants."  A  further  study,  then,  of  this 
selection  reveals  two  important  ways  in  which  Cohe- 
rence can  be  secured  in  the  separate  sentences — ways 
very  similar  to  those  that,  as  we  have  just  seen,  pro- 
mote Coherence  between  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph 
— first,  by  placing  ideas  closely  related  in  thought  close 
together  in  the  sentence ;  and  second,  by  giving  to  sim- 
ilar ideas  similar  constructions. 

7.  Another  way  of  securing  Coherence  in  sentences 


2  04  Sentences 

is  illustrated  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the  selection  from 
Addison  in  Chapter  i,  Exercise  3, — by  using  con- 
nectives with  exactness.  We  may  first  note  that  sim- 
ilar ideas  are  given  similar  form.  The  same  subject  is 
kept  in  all  the  sentences,  and  it  is  followed  in  each  case 
by  a  verb  in  the  perfect  tense.  Each  sentence  tells  of 
something  Sir  Roger  has  done  to  improve  the  church 
service;  and  this  similarity  in  thought  is  indicated  by 
similarity  in  construction.  The  subject  "  he,"  which 
is  repeated,  also  serves  as  a  connective  between  sen- 
tences. The  exact  use  of  connectives  between  phrases 
and  clauses  is  illustrated  in  the  last  sentence  of  the 
paragraph.  Let  us  look  at  it  first  with  Addison's  con- 
nectives changed  or  omitted.  Then  we  can  see  how 
each  of  his  connectives  helps  to  make  the  exact  rela- 
tions of  the  words  evident. 

AN    EXAMPLE   OF   INEXACT   CONNECTIVES 
(The  numerals  mark  the  change   or   omission   of  Addison's 
words.     The  sentence  should  be  read  in  its  present  form,  and 
then  compared  with  Addison's.) 

He  has  often  told  me,  (i)  how  (2)  coming  to  his  es- 
tate he  found  his  parishioners  very  irregular;  and  (3) 
(4)  to  make  them  kneel  and  join  in  the  responses,  he 
gave  every  one  of  them  a  hassock  and  a  common-prayer- 
book;  and  (5)  employed  an  itinerant  singing-master,  who 
goes  about  the  country  (6),  to  instruct  them  rightly  in 
the  tunes  of  the  Psalms ;  (7)  upon  which  they  (8)  very 
much  value  themselves  and  (9)  outdo  most  of  the  country 
churches  that  I  have  heard. 

8.  Let  us  now  see  the  connectives  that  Addison  ac- 
tually used  in  the  nine  places  indicated. 


Coherence  205 


1.  "  that  "  instead  of  "  how."  This  is  more  correct, 
since  "  how  "  indicates  manner,  and  is  also  more  usual 
after  verbs  of  thinking,  saying,  telling,  etc. 

2.  "  at  his  coming "  instead  of  merely  "  coming." 
This  is  more  definite,  since  it  makes  clear  a  relation  of 
time.  Especial  care  must  be  taken  with  participial  phrases 
to  make  their  exact  relation  to  the  sentence  unmistakable. 

3.  "  that  "  is  added.  This  makes  the  clause  parallel  in 
structure  with  the  preceding,  each  now  being  introduced 
by  "  that." 

4.  "  in  order  to "  instead  of  "  to."  The  infinitive 
phrase  modifies  the  verb  "  gave  "  by  denoting  its  purpose. 
This  relation  is  expressed  more  exactly  by  the  introduc- 
tory words  "  in  order  "  than  by  the  ambiguous  ''  to." 

5.  "  at  the  same  time  "  is  added.  This  makes  clear 
the  relation  of  time  and  establishes  a  closer  connection 
with  the  preceding  clause  introduced  by  "  that  at  his  com- 
ing to  his  estate." 

6.  "  for  that  purpose  "  is  added.  This  connects  the 
preceding  clause  with  the  following  infinitive  by  showing 
their  relation  to  each  other. 

7.  "  upon  which."  What  is  the  antecedent  of  the 
relative?  Strict  accuracy  would  require  the  substitution 
of  ''  singing  "  for  "  tunes,"  although  the  sense  is  clear  as 
it  is. 

8.  "  now  "  is  inserted.  This  makes  clear  the  differ- 
ence in  time  between  the  action  of  this  clause  and  the 
earlier  one  introduced  by  the  phrase,  "  at  his  coming  to 
his  estate." 

9.  **  indeed  "  is  inserted.  This  separates  the  follow- 
ing statement  from  the  preceding  and  calls  especial  at- 
tention to  it. 

9.  One  of  Addison's  connectives  is  a  relative  pro- 
noun without  a  clearly  determined  antecedent — a  viola- 
tion of  grammar,  perhaps  more  common  among  good 
writers  in  his  day  than  in  ours.  The  other  eight  all 
mark  an  improvement  in  exactness.    Two  (i,  3)  mark 


2o6  Sentences 

parallel  constructions;  three  (2,  5,  8)  denote  the  time- 
relations  of  various  parts  of  the  sentence;  two  (4,  6) 
denote  purpose;  and  one  (9)  gives  emphasis  to  a  state- 
ment. Each  connective  makes  clear  some  relation  be- 
tween words  of  the  sentence.  By  means  of  an  exact 
use  of  connectives,  Addison's  sentence  is  made  the 
more  coherent  of  the  two. 

10.  The  ways  of  securing  Coherence  that  we  have  so 
far  observed  may  be  further  illustrated  by  an  exam- 
ination of  the  sentences  of  any  writer  of  good  prose. 
They  are  the  essential  means  of  promoting  Coherence 
in  sentences,  and  may  now  be  restated  in  the  form  of 
four  rules,  which  the  student  will  do  well  to  understand 
thoroughly  and  to  remember. 

Rule  I.  Grammatical  Relations.  The  grammatical 
relations  between  words  or  phrases  must  be  made 
unmistakable. 

11.  This  rule  appHes  to  all  parts  of  speech,  and  es- 
pecially to  pronouns  and  their  antecedents,  and  parti- 
ciples and  their  nouns.  The  following  sentences  repre- 
sent some  of  the  most  common  failures  to  make  the 
relation  of  a  pronoun  and  its  antecedent  clear. 

1.  Antecedent  Omitted.  I  am  sitting  by  an  open  fire, 
dreaming  as  one  is  apt  to  do  when  the  first  cool  days  of 
Fall  have  come,  and  when  the  myriad  colors  of  the  flames 
consuming  the  different  trees,  make  it  attractive  and 
home  more  cheerful. 

2.  Disagreement  in  Number.  One  of  the  girls  lost 
their  footing. 


:1|Ia 


Coherence  207 

3.  Ambiguous  Reference.  We  ate  the  grapes  on  our 
ride  home  later  in  the  afternoon,  which  was  very  pleasant. 

4.  Antecedent  Implied.  He  was  an  army-officer  and 
had  served  in  it  for  thirty  years. 

5.  Confusion  of  "  Its.''  I  saw  it  deserted  and  did  n't 
wonder  at  it,  for  it  is  so  high  that  it  would  be  almost  sui- 
cide to  climb  it  on  a  warm  day. 

6.  Disagreement  in  Number.  The  room  was  in  very 
good  order,  although  we  were  told  that  they  were  taken 
care  of  by  the  students  themselves. 

7.  Ambiguous  Reference.  Tightly  she  clasped  the 
child's  hand  as  if  she  wanted  never  to  let  go  of  her  again, 
and  she  thought  of  the  agonizing  grief  of  her  mother  if 
she  should  return  without  her  child. 

12.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  failures  to 
make  clear  the  relations  between  participles  and  their 
subjects.  When  the  participial  phrase  is  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence,  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  the 
participle  is  attached  should  be  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence. Recast  each  sentence  so  that  the  relation  of 
the  participle  will  be  unmistakable. 

t.  Not  finding  the  right  track  at  once,  considerable 
time  was  lost  in  looking  for  it. 

2.  Disregarding  all  protests,  the  next  moment  we 
heard  them  moving  cautiously  up  the  rickety  stairs. 

3.  Having  reached  the  top,  there  sounded  a  scuffle. 

4.  After  descending  the  stairs,  the  first  door  to  the 
right  opens  into  the  dining-room. 

5.  Glancing  back  at  the  house,  a  gray  veil  seems  to 
shut  that  too  from  our  vision. 

6.  The  most  favorable  time  to  take  a  drive  is  in  the 
later  half  of  the  afternoon,  when,  coming  down  the  long 
hill,  the  sun  is  left  behind. 

7.  Far  off  and  almost  concealed  by  trees,  we  could  see 
a  little  white  house. 


2o8  Sentences 

8.     The  seats  are  of  cane  and  not  covered  with  plush, 
making  them  much  more  comfortable. 


Rule   2.     Connectives.     Connectives   between   words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  must  be  used  with  precision. 

13.  The  three  connectives  which  are  used  most  care- 
lessly are  "  and,"  "  but,"  and  "  as."  "  And  "  ought  not 
to  be  used  to  connect  all  sorts  of  ideas,  whether  coor- 
dinate or  not;  "  but  "  ought  not  to  be  used  unless  there 
is  a  real  antithesis  between  two  coordinate  expressions ; 
"  as  "  ought  not  to  be  used  where  "  since,"  "  when," 
or  "  because  "  would  be  more  exact.  The  following 
sentences  are  incoherent  because  of  either  insufficient 
or  inexact  connectives.  They  may  be  improved  by 
adding  connectives,  or  by  using  more  precise  ones,  or 
by  recasting  the  sentence  so  as  to  do  away  with  the 
objectionable  word. 

1.  The  power  has  been  made  adequate,  and  the  best 
that  grumblers  could  do  has  been  to  say  the  cars  were  run- 
ning too  fast. 

2.  She  was  fair,  with  black  eyes,  brown  hair,  and 
seventeen  years  old. 

3.  Here  it  is  that  in  the  fall  of  the  year  these  great 
monarchs  of  the  woods  fight  their  battles,  and  (A)  wan- 
der off  in  companies  of  two  or  three  to  spend  a  season  in 
domestic  quiet. 

4.  The  boulevard  could  be  seen  winding  about  a  small 
pond,  in  which  some  geese  were  swimming,  with  the  tall 
green  nut-trees  spreading  their  branches  over  the  walks. 

5.  We  ^stopped  here  and  put  on  our  rubbers  as  it  was 
getting  muddy. 

(pi    We  had  walked  for  over  an  hour  but  began  to  feel 


Coherence  209 

tired,  but  we  decided  to  keep  on,  as  we  knew  they  would 
be  waiting  for  us. 

7.  With  coats  off  and  sleeves  rolled  up,  we  grasped 
and  bent  to  the  oars,  and  with  one  accord,  first  leaning 
forward,  then  pulling  backwards  with  such  force  that 
each  muscle  stood  out  prominently  and  seemed  as  if  it 
would  burst,  we  assisted  in  propelling  the  boats ;  but  the 
rest  of  the  party  with  hair  standing  and  with  eyes 
stretched  as  if  they  would  pop  out,  watched  our  every 
movement  as  much  as  to  say,  "  Our  lives  now  depend 
upon  you." 


Rule  3.  Order  of  Words.  Words  or  phrases  closely 
connected  in  thought  should  be  placed  together  in 
the  sentence;  words  or  phrases  distinct  in  thought 
should  be  kept  apart. 

14.  In  an  uninflected  language  we  are  obliged  to  in- 
dicate the  relation  of  words  largely  by  their  position. 
This  rule  is,  therefore,  of  very  great  importance  in- 
securing  Coherence.  In  the  following  sentences  the 
relation  between  certain  words  is  obscure  because  they 
are  kept  apart.  Expressions  inclosed  in  parentheses 
are  to  be  shifted  to  the  places  marked  by  carets. 

1.  He  refused  (a)  to  tell  a  lie  (like  a  man). 

2.  (a)  Those  who  do  not  die  young  (as  a  rule,)  are 
strong  enough  to  live  to  a  good  old  age. 

3.  Six  men  were  on  the  line,  waiting  for  the  signal  (a) 
to  start  (from  Mr.  Jones). 

4.  In  May,  1430,  the  Maid  of  Orleans  was  captured 
and  was  burned  at  the  stake,  as  a  heretic,  at  Rouen,  on 
May  the  thirtieth,  143 1,  by  the  English. 

5.  There  (a)  stands  the  old  ruin,  rudely  constructed 
of  massive  oak  logs,  (in  the  shade  of  the  pines.) 

14 


2IO  Sentences 

6.  Three  branches  extend  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
main  trunk,  resembHng  the  fore  talons  of  a  bird,  while 
numerous  other  limbs,  crooked  and  gnarled,  spread  out 
in  every  direction  higher  up. 

7.  (We,)  two  by  two,  each  holding  a  tallow  candle, 
(a)  passed  from  the  hall  into  the  dining-room. 

8.  To  the  terrified  crowd,  the  boat  (only)  seemed  (a) 
to  crawl  along. 

15.  Expressions  that  go  in  pairs  may  be  connected  by 
words  called  correspondents;  such  as — either,  or;  nei- 
ther, nor ;  both,  and ;  not  only,  but  also.  The  first  mem- 
ber of  the  pair  should  be  placed  immediately  after  the 
first  correspondent,  and  the  second  member  immedi- 
ately after  the  second  correspondent.  Incoherence  re- 
sults from  misplaced  correspondents,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences. 

9.     He  not  only  gave  me  (a)  praise  for  what  I  had 
done  but  also  encouragement  to  keep  on  trying. 

10.     I  could  neither  confide  in  (  a)  him  nor  his  brother. 


Rule  4.  Uniformity  of  Construction.  Phrases  or 
clauses,  similar  in  meaning,  should  be  given  the 
same  construction. 

16.  This  rule  calls  attention  to  an  important  device 
for  making  the  relations  of  our  ideas  evident.  When 
we  have  two  similar  thoughts,  we  must  not  put  one  in 
the  active  voice  and  the  other  in  the  passive;  or  one 
in  a  phrase  and  the  other  in  a  clause ;  or  one  in  an  in- 
finitive clause  and  the  other  in  a  clause  introduced  by 


Coherence  211 

"  that. -'  Uniformity  of  construction  makes  the  sim- 
ilarity of  the  ideas  apparent  to  the  reader.  The  fol- 
lowing examples  show  how  confusing  changes  in  con- 
struction may  become. 

1.  She  told  him  of  the  defence  of  De  Bracy^s  men  and 
of  the  other  side,  the  attacking  side. 

2.  They  seem  industrious  and  to  be  ambitious  to  suc- 
ceed in  life. 

3.  After  looking  everywhere  for  our  companions,  and 
when  we  had  failed  to  find  a  sign  of  them,  we  decided  to 
return  to  the  village. 

4.  Every  fellow  who  is  in  good  health  should  try  for 
the  team ;  in  the  first  place,  for  the  sake  of  exercise  and 
fun ;  in  the  second,  because  the  school  is  small  and  needs 
the  help  of  every  man  if  we  are  to  beat  the  South  High ; 
and  in  the  third  place,  it  is  a  good  way  to  show  your  loy- 
alty. 

5.  I  see  the  large  room  that  had  once  been  sunny,  and 
the  scene  of  many  gay  times,  but  now  offering  no  sign  of 
joy  within  its  walls. 

6.  When  we  glance  out  of  the  west  window  and  see 
the  pretty  lawn  beneath,  with  the  trees  and  hedge  beyond ; 
and  from  the  north  window  see  the  thrifty  garden  and 
grape  arbor ;  considering  again  the  taste  displayed  in  fur- 
nishing the  room,  we  conclude  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
delightful  rooms  that  we  have  ever  visited. 

17-  Most  common  of  all  unnecessary  changes  in  con- 
struction is  the  change  of  subject.  The  paragraph  on 
pages  39,  40  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  essay  on  Macaulay 
illustrates  the  gain  in  Coherence  from  keeping  the  same 
subject  through  not  only  one  but  several  sentences. 
The  following  sentences  are  incoherent  because  of  un- 
necessary changes  of  subjects. 


2  12  Sentences 

7.  Her  scowl  caused  many  people  to  think  that  she 
was  ill-tempered,  but  her  being  near-sighted  was  the  cause 
of  it. 

8.  In  rainy  weather  the  farmers  must  travel  through 
mud  and  mire;  when  the  season  is  very  dry,  the  dust  is 
unendurable. 

9.  The  people  began  to  put  two  and  two  together,  and 
gradually  a  conclusion  was  reached. 

ID.  In  the  country  the  farmers  have  stacked  their 
corn,  and  only  a  few  vegetables  remain. 

II.  From  the  smaller  end  of  the  long  bent  pole  hangs 
the  wooden  bucket,  and  to  the  other  end  they  have  tied 
old  iron  wheels  for  weights. 

18.  The  purpose  of  all  this  discussion  and  illustra- 
tion is  to  aid  the  student  in  expressing  his  ideas  clearly, 
simply,  and  directly.  If  he  is  careful  to  begin  a  sen- 
tence where  the  preceding  one  left  off,  if  he  has  his 
thought  clearly  in  mind,  and  if  he  develops  it  in  a 
straightforward  manner  with  attention  to  grammar, 
he  is  not  likely  to  sin  greatly  against  Coherence.  In 
order  to  rid  his  sentences,  however,  from  all  the  faults 
that  make  for  incoherence,  he  will  need  to  revise  his 
sentences  systematically  in  accordance  with  the  four 
rules. 


EXERCISES 

I 

I.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  which  of  the 
four  rules  for  Coherence  is  violated?  How  can  the 
sentence  be  made  coherent? 


Coherence  213 

1.  After  riding  east  for  about  an  hour  the  car  gets  to  its 
limit. 

2.  The  mad  waters  with  their  amber  hue  were  dashing  madly 
against  the  rocks  below  and  foaming  with  wrath,  and  the  sun- 
beams were  dancing  merrily  in  the  spray  that  washed  against  our 
faces. 

3.  He  is  well  educated,  with  good  sense,  and  of  an  observant 
mind. 

4.  The  tireless  water  is  dashing  through  the  locks  which  have 
not  been  closed  for  many  years,  like  a  miniature  Niagara. 

5.  Ruth's  own  thoughts  we  could  hardly  guess ;  a  new  world 
seemed  before  her  as  she  walked  down  the  hill  and  over  the 
bridge,  stopping  to  look  over  the  rail  at  the  minnows  darting 
about  in  the  water  below. 

6.  The  short  body  filled  a  garment  which  descended  only  to 
the  waist  when  I  saw  it. 

7.  Tea  is  often  served  here  to  the  strains  of  the  music-box,  if 
the  evening  is  warm,  mingled  with  the  splash  of  the  waters  as 
they  are  churned  by  the  wheel. 

8.  The  first  fish  caught  was  by  Edgar  Smith,  it  was  about 
twelve  inches  long;  all  were  anxious  to  be  the  next. 

9.  Slowly  the  scene  faded  as  the  train  rushed  on,  leaving  the 
limits  of  the  great  city,  but,  ineffaceably  stamped  upon  my  mem- 
ory, it  remains  as  fresh  and  vivid  as  on  that  quiet  morning. 

10.  One  night  during  this  sleet  it  rained  a  little,  and  being  cold 
enough  to  freeze  as  it  fell,  made  the  ice  much  more  slippery  than 
it  had  been  before. 

11.  Several  cows  were  grazing  in  a  place  set  apart  for  them, 
which  looked  about  two  inches  tall. 

12.  The  Palmer  got  his  horse  and  armor  from  a  friend  of 
Isaac  the  Jew  for  the  tournament. 

13.  They  immediately  put  her  in  a  guard-house,  and  while  she 
was  there,  they  sent  a  woman  to  search  her,  but  she  hastily  tore 
the  message  up  and  ate  every  piece  before  they  had  a  chance  to 
get  it.  She  then  got  on  her  horse  and  started  away,  and  the  Brit- 
ish will  always  remember  Emily  Geiger's  ride. 

14.  Three  small  square  windows  with  flowered  calico  curtains, 
and  a  porch  with  its  slope  the  wrong  way,  its  posts  of  native  tim- 


2  14  Sentences 

ber  with  the  bark  still  clinging  to  them,  made  me  eager  to  see 
the  inside  of  this  queerly  constructed  affair. 

15.  Following  back  the  aisle,  it  leads  into  the  dining-room. 

16.  One  morning  last  winter,  after  a  fierce  struggle  with  a  rag- 
ing storm  for  three  successive  days,  I  well  remember  how  glad  it 
seemed  to  me  to  be  able  to  relax  and  breathe  freely  once  more. 

17.  After  winding  around  the  mountains  in  an  upward  course, 
moving  at  such  a  speed  that  the  passengers  can  get  off,  pick 
flowers  and  ferns,  and  get  back  on  while  the  train  is  in  motion, 
they  finally  reach  the  top  and  are  satisfied  to  find  a  beautiful 
little  village  nestling  in  the  bosom  of  the  hills,  like  a  little  child 
caught  up  in  the  embrace  of  its  mother. 

18.  Athletics  in  college  are  desirable  for  three  reasons;  first, 
"  strong  minds  are  in  strong  bodies  " ;  second,  because  youth  is 
the  time  for  physical  development;  third,  for,  without  athletics, 
students  do  not  get  enough  exercise. 

19.  They  all  marched  in  twos  in  perfect  time  with  the  music 
and  each  carrying  a  hymnal  and  singing. 

20.  It  is  so  still  and  solemn,  hearing  nothing  but  the  patter  of 
the  horses'  hoofs  and  the  rustle  of  the  leaves,  you  wonder  if  there 
is  any  quieter  or  stiller  place  and  how  dreary  it  must  be  in  win- 
ter, when  the  coachman  stops  suddenly,  and  you  look  up  and  see 
a  massive  building  built  of  stone,  which  is  the  castle. 

2.  The  following  sentences  are  to  be  rearranged  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  of  Coherence.  Here  the 
different  parts  are  placed  in  this  order,  (i)  Con- 
nective word  or  phrase,  connecting  the  sentence  with 
the  preceding;  (2)  Subject;  (3)  Predicate.  The  va- 
rious modifiers  of  the  subject  and  verb  are  not  ar- 
ranged in  any  fixed  order.  The  coordinate  clauses  in  a 
compound  sentence  are  treated  as  separate  sentences, 
but  are  numbered  lA,  iB,  iC,  etc.,  in  order  to  in- 
dicate that  they  belong  to  one  sentence.  Supply  punc- 
tuation. 


Coherence 


215 


THE  NIGHT  BEFORE  THE  BATTLE  OF  HASTINGS 


I.     Connective.     And  now 
Subject,      the  night  . 


Predicate,     came  on 
2.     Subj.  the  way  .  .  . 


Pred.  was  .  .  . 

3A.  Subj.  the  English    . 
Pred.  spent  .  .  . 

3B.  Subj.  the   Normans 
Pred.  (verb  omitted) 

4.     Subj.    two    prelates 
Pred.  were  .  .  . 


5.    Subj.  one  .  . 
Pred.  was  .  . 


6.    Subj.  the  other  .  .  . 
Pred.  was  .  .  .  Odo  . 


.the  night  of  Friday  the 
thirteenth  of  October  .  . 

the  night  which  was  to 
usher  in  the  ever  memo- 
rable morn  of  St.  Calix- 
tus 

in  which  that  night  was 
spent  by  the  two  ar- 
mies .  .  . 

very   different  .  .  . 

according  to  our  Norman 
informants  .  .  . 

the  night  ...  in  drinking 
and  singing  .  .  . 

in  prayer  and  confession 
of  their  sins  .  .  . 

of  all  but  the  highest  rank 
in  the  Norman  church . . 

among  the  crowds  of 
clergy  .  .  . 

in  William's  host  .  .  . 

Geoffrey  .  .  . 

who,  in  his  temporal  char- 
acter, was  soon  to  have 
so  large  a  share  of  the 
spoils  of  England  .  .  . 

Bishop  of  Coutances  .  .  . 

the  famous  .  .  .  the  Duke's 
own   half-brother  .  .  . 


2l6 


Sentences 


{Suhj.)     who  .  .  . 
(Pred.)     was  ...  to  add  .  .  .  soon  . . 
the  temporal  cares  of  the 

Kentish  earldom  .  .  . 
to  his  bishop's  seat  at  Bay- 
eux  .  .  . 


8. 


Conn. 

and  .  .  . 

Suhj. 

one  .  .  . 

not  yet  their  equal  in  eccle- 
siastical rank  .  .  . 

Pred, 

was  .  .  . 

C.  but   .   .  . 
vS.  who  .  .  . 

with  them  .  .  . 

P.  was  .  .  . 

to  leave  .  .  .  unlike  them  . . 
in    English   ecclesiastical 
history  .  .  . 
an  abiding  name  .  .  . 

Suhj. 

Remigius  .  .  . 

in  after  days  the  first 

Bishop  of  Lincoln  .   .  . 
the  Almoner  of  Fecamp .  . . 

Pred. 

was  .  .  . 

the  leader   of  the   knights 
whom  his  abbot  had  sent 
under  his  orders  .  .  . 

9. 


Suhj.  the  Norman  host . 
Pred.  seems  .  .  . 


to  have  been  wrought 

up  .  .  . 
under  the  pious  care  of  the 

two  bishops  and  of  the 

other  clergy  .  .  . 
to  a  kind  of  paroxysm  of 

devotion  .  .  . 


3»  Analyze  the  sentences  in  a  paragraph  from  Ma- 
caulay,  noting  carefully  the  means  by  which  Coherence 
is  secured,  and  arranging  these  means  under  the  four 
rules  given  in  this  chapter.  Analyze  a  paragraph  from 
Hawthorne  in  the  same  way;  one  from  Burke;  one 
from  Goldsmith. 


Coherence  ^17 

4-  The  structure  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  most 
clearly  shown  by  means  of  a  diagram,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  two  following  sentences. 

(i)  What  was  demanded  of  her  was  that  she  should 
consent  to  be  almost  as  completely  separated  from  her 
family  and  friends  as  if  she  had  gone  to  Calcutta,  and 
almost  as  close  a  prisoner  as  if  she  had  been  sent  to  jail 
for  a  libel ;  that  with  talents  which  had  instructed  and  de- 
lighted the  highest  living  minds,  she  should  now  be  em- 
ployed only  in  mixing  snuff  and  sticking  pins ;  that  she 
should  be  summoned  by  a  waiting  woman's  bell  to  a 
waiting  woman's  duties;  that  she  should  pass  her  whole 
life  under  the  restraints  of  a  paltry  etiquette,  should  some- 
times fast  till  she  was  ready  to  swoon  with  hunger,  should 
sometimes  stand  till  her  knees  gave  way  with  fatigue ;  that 
she  should  not  dare  to  speak  or  move  without  considering 
how  her  mistress  might  like  her  words  and  gestures.  (2) 
Instead  of  those  distinguished  men  and  women,  the  flower 
of  all  political  parties,  with  whom  she  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  mixing  on  terms  of  equal  friendship,  she  was  to 
have  for  her  perpetual  companion  the  chief  keeper  of  the 
robes,  an  old  hag  from  Germany,  of  mean  understand- 
ing, of  insolent  manners,  and  of  temper  which,  naturally 
savage,  had  now  been  exasperated  by  disease. 

Thomas  B.  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Madame  D'Arhlay. 

The  following  diagram  indicates  the  use  of  parallel 
constructions  in  the  first  sentence. 

(X)     What  was  demanded  of  her  .  .  .  was  .  .  , 
(A)     that  she  should  consent  to  be 

(a)     almost  as  completely  separated  from  her 
family  and  friends 
as  if  she  had  gone  to  Calcutta, 
(J))     almost  as  close  a  prisoner 

as  if  she  had  been  sent  to  jail  for  a 
libel; 


2  1 8  Sentences 

(B)  that  with  talents  which  had liv- 

ing minds;  she  should  be  employed  only 
in  mixing  snuff 
and  sticking  pins; 

(C)  that  she  should  be  summoned 

by  a  waiting  woman's  bell 
to  a  waiting  woman's  duties ; 

(D)  that  she  (c)  should  pass  her  whole  life  .  .  .  pal- 

try etiquette, 

(d)  should  sometimes  fast 

till  she  was  ready  .  .  .  hunger, 

(e)  should  sometimes  stand 

till  her  knees  .  .  .  fatigue; 

(E)  that  she  should  not  dare  to  speak  or  move  .  .  . 

words  and  gestures. 

The  complement  of  the  verb  "  was  demanded  "  con- 
sists of  five  parallel  clauses,  each  beginning  "  that  she 
should,''  except  clause  B,  where  variety  is  gained  by 
placing  "  she  should  "  later  in  the  clause.  Within  sev- 
eral of  these  five  clauses  there  are  other  parallel  con- 
structions. The  structure  is,  indeed,  so  clearly  marked 
that  it  can  be  represented  by  an  algebraic  equation,  the 
letters  of  the  diagram  being  retained. 

X=:A(a-f&)+B-fC  +  D(c  +  JH-^)+E. 

Represent  the  antithetical  structure  of  the  second 
sentence  by  a  diagram. 

5.  In  themes  assigned  to  you,  criticize  the  sentences 
and  suggest  improvements,  as  suggested  in  the  follow- 
ing outline. 

1.  Length,     (a)  Long,     (b)  Short,     (c)  Variety. 

2.  Unity,  (a)  Involved,  incongruous  parts,  (b) 
Short,  fragmentary,     (c)   Subordination  of  parts. 

3.  Coherence.     Rules  i,  2,  3,  4.     , 


Coherence  219 


II 

6.  In  the  sentences  quoted  from  Macaulay  in  Exer- 
cise 5,  do  the  parallel  and  antithetical  constructions 
promote  Emphasis?  If  so,  how?  In  the  second  sen- 
tence would  Emphasis  be  injured  by  a  different  ar- 
rangement of  clauses  and  phrases?    If  so,  why? 

7.  Read  over  again  the  paragraphs  quoted  in  the  text 
of  Chapter  6.  What  words  or  phrases  are  specially 
impressed  on  your  mind  ?  By  what  methods  are  these 
made  emphatic  ?  Can  you  group  any  of  these  methods 
into  classes ;  as — Repetition,  Antithesis,  Climax,  or  any 
others?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  methods  for  emphasiz- 
ing ideas  in  sentences  that  you  can  discover,  and  give 
examples  under  each. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
EMPHASIS  IN  SENTENCES 

1.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  requires  that  the  writer 
indicate  the  relative  importance  of  his  ideas  to  the 
reader.  We  have  already  taken  an  important  step  to- 
ward this  when  we  have  organized  our  ideas,  coordi- 
nated some  and  subordinated  others,  grouped  them  into 
organic  units  of  thought,  and  presented  each  unit  as 
a  single  sentence.  By  bringing  related  ideas  close  to- 
gether, and  by  giving  similar  ideas  similar  forms,  we 
advance  still  further  toward  making  their  relative  value 
evident  to  the  reader.  Thus  the  principles  of  Unity 
and  Coherence  both  aid  in  securing  Emphasis.  We 
still  have  to  consider,  however,  by  what  definite  means 
an  idea  of  especial  importance  can  be  presented  in  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  so  as  to  win  the  reader's 
attention. 

2.  A  sentence  is  emphatic  when  it  is  in  some  way  dis- 
tinguished from  its  neighbors.  So,  after  a  long  sen- 
tence, a  short  one  catches  the  attention.  So,  too,  in 
a  succession  of  declarative  sentences  an  occasional  in- 
terrogation attracts  notice  to  itself.  Certain  kinds  of 
sentences  win  attention  because  of  their  structure.  A 
periodic  sentence  does  not  permit  the  reader's  attention 

220 


Emphasis  221 

to  wander  until  he  reaches  its  end.  A  balanced  sen- 
tence sets  one  idea  over  against  another,  and  each  re- 
enforces  the  other,  as  in  the  following  example: 

Thus  the  successors  of  the  old  Cavaliers  had  turned 
demagogues;  the  successors  of  the  old  Roundheads  had 
turned  courtiers. 

In  both  balanced  and  periodic  sentences,  however, 
the  emphasis  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  their  struc- 
ture distinguishes  them  from  their  neighbors.  If 
either  structure  were  used  constantly,  it  would  cease 
to  attract  attention.  As  we  have  seen  in  our  study  of 
paragraphs,  the  most  generally  effective  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing one  sentence  from  its  neighbors  is  to  put 
it  first  or  last  in  the  paragraph,  at  a  place  where  it 
catches  the  reader's  eye. 

3.  In  calling  especial  attention  to  some  part  of  a  sen- 
tence, we  are  governed  by  the  same  considerations. 
Capitals,  italics,  or  heavy-faced  type  make  words  con- 
spicuous, but  if  used  often  they  annoy  rather  than  at- 
tract the  reader.  A  balanced  sentence  brings  certain 
words  into  prominence  through  their  opposition  to 
others.  A  change  in  the  natural  order  of  words,  such 
as  an  inversion  that  places  the  verb  first  and  the  noun 
last,  attracts  attention  to  certain  words  because  of  their 
position.  Whenever,  in  fact,  a  word  is  in  an  unusual 
position  it  is  emphasized.  Perhaps  an  even  more  useful 
means  of  calling  attention  to  important  words  is  by 
their  repetition.  All  these  means,  however,  lose  their 
effect  unless  used  very  sparingly.    The  surest  and  most 


2  2  2  Sentences 

generally  available  means  of  emphasizing  words  is  to 
put  them  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  a  sentence. 
These  are  the  parts  which  the  reader  sees  most  clearly, 
and  the  end  is  the  part  which  remains  longest  in  his 
mind.  Therefore,  put  important  words  at  the  begin- 
ning or  the  end. 

4.  This  cannot  always  be  done.  The  grammatical 
relations  of  words  must  always  be  preserved,  and  a 
natural  order  is  usually  better  than  an  artificial.  With 
a  little  ingenuity  and  care,  however,  we  can  make  the 
requirements  of  grammar  and  Coherence  aids  rather 
than  hindrances  to  Emphasis.  In  the  following  sen- 
tence, for  example,  "  domestic  and  political  vexa- 
tions "  is  the  most  important  expression,  but  it  occu- 
pies an  unemphatic  place. 

It  is  melancholy  to  think  that  both  domestic  and  political 
vexations  should  have  clouded  over  the  last  months  of 
such  a  life. 

Take  the  sentence  as  Macaulay  wrote  it,  and  the  Em- 
phasis is  improved  by  a  change  in  the  voice  of  the 
verb. 

It  Is  melancholy  to  think  that  the  last  months  of  such  a 
life  should  have  been  overclouded  both  by  domestic  and 
by  political  vexations. 

By  changing  a  construction,  Emphasis  for  certain 
words  may  often  be  secured  without  injuring  gram- 
mar or  Coherence. 

5.  Bad  Emphasis,  however,  in  most  sentences,  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  unimportant  words  occupy  the  im- 


Emph 


asis  223 


portant  positions.  A  sentence  begins  with  "  I  think  " 
or  "  it  seems  to  me  "  or  "  it  was  a  pleasant  evening 
that";  or  it  ends  with  a  trivial  phrase.  Note  the  im- 
provement made  in  the  following  sentences  by  shift- 
ing the  insignificant  parts  out  of  the  best  positions. 
Expressions  to  be  omitted  are  inclosed  in  brackets; 
those  to  be  shifted,  in  parentheses;  the  places  where 
they  are  to  reappear  are  marked  with  carets. 

1.  (In  the  judgment  of  our  age)  the  least  valuable  of 
Addison's  contributions  to  the  *' Spectator  "  are  (a)  his 
critical  papers. 

2.  Many  strangers  come  (  a  )  to  view  the  battle-ground 
(in  the  summer  time). 

3.  (It  seems  to  me)  [that]  Mathematics  (a)  furnishes 
better  mental  training  than  Latin. 

4.  [It  was]  on  a  hot  midsummer's  day  [that]  we 
started  for  the  mountains. 

5.  Writers  are  (a)  good  judges  of  their  own  compo- 
sitions (in  very  few  cases). 

In  the  first  two  sentences  in  the  paragraph  from  Gib- 
bon quoted  in  Chapter  5,  one  can  see  that  he  knew 
very  well  what  words  he  wished  to  emphasize,  and  ar- 
ranged his  sentences  accordingly.  Any  change  will 
bring  an  unimportant  word  at  the  beginning  or  the 
end. 


The  harbour  of  Constantinople,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  an  arm  of  the  Bosphorus,  obtained,  in  a  very  re- 
mote period,  the  denomination  of  the  Golden  Horn. 

The  curve  which  it  describes  might  be  compared  to  the 
horn  of  a  stag,  or,  as  it  should  seem,  with  more  propriety, 
to  that  of  an  ox. 


2  24  Sentences 

Similarly  the  student  will  have  to  exercise  consider- 
able care  to  prevent  unimportant  words  from  usurping 
either  of  the  two  most  important  places. 
6.  Of  the  two  positions,  the  more  emphatic  and  the 
more  available  is  the  end.  A  sentence  naturally  begins 
with  its  subject  or  modifiers,  with  some  reference  to 
the  preceding  sentence,  or  with  a  clause  introducing 
the  main  statement  of  the  sentence.  The  beginning 
need  not  be  trivial,  but  it  cannot  always  be  a  sig- 
nificant word.  The  end  of  a  sentence,  on  the  contrary, 
brings  the  thought  to  a  conclusion,  a  goal,  a  culmi- 
nation. A  sentence  may,  therefore,  often  end  very  nat- 
urally with  its  most  significant  word.  And,  as  the 
end  of  a  sentence  gives  a  chance  for  emphasis,  so  the 
end  of  a  clause  gives  a  chance  for  a  secondary  goal  in 
the  progress  of  thought,  and  a  secondary  emphasis. 
In  the  following  paragraph  from  Carlyle's  description 
of  Coleridge,  all  the  words  just  preceding  the  semico- 
lons are  important;  all  the  words  at  the  beginnings  of 
the  sentences  are  important,  though  they  serve  as  con- 
nectives ;  and  the  words  and  phrases  at  the  ends  of  the 
sentences  are  so  important  that,  even  when  taken  out 
of  their  context,  they  give  a  kind  of  synopsis  of  the 
paragraph.  The  vivid  impression  you  receive  of  Cole- 
ridge is  due  very  largely  to  the  words  at  the  ends 
of  clauses  and  at  the  beginnings  and  ends  of  sentences. 

The  good  man,  he  was  now  getting  old,  towards  sixty 
perhaps;  and  gave  you  the  idea  of  a  life  that  had  been 
full  of  sufferings  ;  a  life  heavy-laden,  half-vanquished,  still 
swimming  painfully  in  seas  of  manifold  physical  and  other 


Emph 


asis  225 


bewilderment.  Brow  and  head  were  round,  and  of  mas- 
sive weight,  but  the  face  was  flabby  and  irresolute.  The 
deep  eyes,  of  a  light  hazel,  were  as  full  of  sorrow  as  of 
inspiration  ;  confused  pain  looking  mildly  from  them  as  in 
a  kind  of  mild  astonishment.  The  whole  figure  and  air, 
good  and  amiable  otherwise,  might  be  called  flabby  and 
irresolute;  expressive  of  weakness  under  possibility  of 
strength.  He  hung  loosely  on  his  limbs,  with  knees  bent, 
and  stooping  attitude ;  in  walking,  he  rather  shuffled  than 
decisively  stept ;  and  a  lady  once  remarked  he  never  could 
fix  which  side  of  the  garden  walk  would  suit  him  best, 
but  continually  shifted,  in  corkscrew  fashion,  and  kept 
trying  both.  A  heavy-laden,  high-aspiring,  and  surely 
much-suffering  man.  His  voice,  naturally  soft  and  good, 
had  contracted  itself  into  a  plaintive  snuffle  and  singsong ; 
he  spoke  as  if  preaching, — you  would  have  said,  preach- 
ing earnestly  and  also  hopelessly  the  weightiest  things.  I 
still  recollect  his  ''object"  and  "subject,"  terms  of  con- 
tinual recurrence  in  the  Kantian  province;  and  how  he 
sang  and  shuffled  them  into  "  om-m-mject  "  and  ''  sum-m- 
mject,"  with  a  kind  of  solemn  shake  or  quaver,  as  he  rolled 
along.  No  talk,  in  his  century  or  in  any  other,  could  be 
more  surprising. 

Thomas  Carlyle  :  Life  of  Sterling. 


7.  Another  way  of  securing  Emphasis  is  the  use  of 
climax.  In  arranging  a  series  of  words  or  phrases,  be- 
gin with  the  least  important  and  end  with  the  most  im- 
portant. "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered  "  is  a  case  of 
climax;  reverse  the  order  of  parts,  and  the  sentence  is 
intolerable.  Nothing,  in  fact,  is  more  fatal  to  Em- 
phasis than  anticlimax. 

8.  We  may  summarize  what  has  been  said  of  Em- 
phasis by  merely  noting  the  various  means  of  securing 
it.     Short  sentences,  when  following  long  ones,  an  oc- 

15 


2  26  Sentences 

casional  interrogation,  periodic  and  balanced  structure, 
an  unusual  position  for  a  word,  the  repetition  of  im- 
portant words, — are  all  aids  to  Emphasis.  Two  posi- 
tions in  a  sentence,  however,  always  attract  the  eye 
more  than  others — the  beginning  and  the  end.  A 
change  in  construction  may  enable  a  writer  to  put  a 
significant  phrase  in  one  of  these  places;  at  any  rate, 
he  can  keep  insignificant  words  out  of  them.  His  sen- 
tences will  certainly  not  be  wholly  unemphatic  if  he 
pays  attention  to  climax  and  puts  important  words  at 
the  end. 

9.  In  concluding  the  discussion  of  the  three  principles 
of  composition  in  sentences,  we  may  note  again  that  the 
purpose  of  all  the  rules  and  principles  is  to  secure  real 
structure.  The  sentence  should  be  an  organic  whole, 
the  parts  of  which  are  knit  together  grammatically  and 
logically,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  most  important 
most  impress  the  reader.  One  valuable  aid  in  securing 
such  structure  is  conciseness.  Unnecessary  words  not 
only  destroy  Unity  and  interrupt  the  Coherence  of 
thought,  but  also  distract  the  reader's  attention  from 
essential  words.  Conciseness  is  not  opposed  to  com- 
prehensiveness. Important  ideas  must  be  treated  fully 
and  may  be  enforced  even  by  repetition.  In  general, 
however,  the  fewer  words  we  take  to  express  our  ideas 
clearly  and  comprehensively,  the  greater  force  they  will 
possess  for  the  reader.  Diff useness  violates  every  prin- 
ciple. Unity  is  injured  by  every  word  that  does  not 
add  something  about  the  subject;  Coherence  by  every 
word  that  does  not  aid  in  making  the  relations  of 


Emphasis  227 

ideas  evident ;  and  Emphasis  by  every  v^ord  that  is  in- 
significant. We  must  take  care  to  make  every  v^ord 
count. 

EXERCISES 


1.  Point  out  the  means  by  which  Emphasis  is  secured 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences  from  Green's  char- 
acter sketch  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

1.  Her  character,  in  fact,  like  her  portraits,  was  utterly 
without  shade. 

2.  Her  delight  in  the  consciousness  of  her  ingenuity 
broke  out  in  a  thousand  puckish  freaks, — freaks  in  which 
one  can  hardly  see  any  purpose  beyond  the  purpose  of 
sheer  mystification. 

3.  Brave  as  they  were,  the  men  who  swept  the  Span- 
ish Main  or  glided  between  the  icebergs  of  Baffin's  Bay 
never  doubted  that  the  palm  of  bravery  lay  with  their 
Queen. 

4.  Her  levity  carried  her  gaily  over  moments  of  de- 
tection and  embarrassment  where  better  women  would 
have  died  of  shame. 

5.  Nothing  is  more  revolting  in  the  Queen,  but  noth- 
ing is  more  characteristic,  than  her  shameless  mendacity. 

6.  No  nobler  group  of  ministers  ever  gathered  round 
a  council-board  than  those  who  gathered  round  the  coun- 
cil-board of  Elizabeth.  But  she  was  the  instrument  of 
none. 

7.  Of  political  wisdom  indeed  in  its  larger  and  more 
generous  sense  Elizabeth  had  little  or  none ;  but  her  po- 
litical tact  was  unerring. 

2.  Examine  the  following  selections  and  note  the  va- 
rious means  by  which  the  sentences  are  made  emphatic. 


2  2  8  Sentences 

Seven  years,  my  Lord,  have  now  passed  since  I  waited 
in  your  outward  rooms  or  was  repulsed  from  your  door ; 
during  which  time  I  have  been  pushing  on  my  work 
through  difficulties,  of  which  it  is  useless  to  complain,  and 
have  brought  it,  at  last,  to  the  verge  of  publication  without 
one  act  of  assistance,  one  word  of  encouragement,  or  one 
smile  of  favour.  Such  treatment  I  did  not  expect,  for  I 
never  had  a  Patron  before. 

The  shepherd  in  Virgil  grew  at  last  acquainted  with 
Love,  and  found  him  a  native  of  the  rocks. 

Is  not  a  Patron,  my  Lord,  one  who  looks  with  uncon- 
cern on  a  man  struggling  for  life  in  the  water,  and  when 
he  has  reached  ground,  encumbers  him  with  help?  The 
notice  which  you  have  been  pleased  to  take  of  my  labours, 
had  it  been  early,  had  been  kind ;  but  it  has  been  delayed 
till  I  am  indifferent,  and  cannot  enjoy  it ;  till  I  am  solitary, 
and  cannot  impart  it;  till  I  am  known,  and  do  not  want 
it.  I  hope  it  is  no  very  cynical  asperity  not  to  confess  ob- 
ligations where  no  benefit  has  been  received,  or  to  be 
unwilling  that  the  Public  should  consider  me  as  owing 
that  to  a  Patron,  which  Providence  has  enabled  me  to  do 
for  myself. 

Samuel  Johnson  :  Letter  to  the  Earl  of  Chesterfield. 

His  fame  is  great;  and  it  will,  we  have  no  doubt,  be 
lasting;  but  it  is  fame  of  a  peculiar  kind,  and  indeed 
marvellously  resembles  infamy.  We  remember  no  other 
case  in  which  the  world  has  made  so  great  a  distinction 
between  a  book  and  its  author.  In  general,  the  book  and 
its  author  are  considered  as  one.  To  admire  the  book  is  to 
admire  the  author.  The  case  of  Boswell  is  an  exception, 
we  think  the  only  exception,  to  this  rule.  His  work  is  uni- 
versally allowed  to  be  interesting,  instructive,  eminently 
original:  yet  it  has  brought  him  nothing  but  contempt. 
All  the  world  reads  it :  all  the  world  delights  in  it :  yet  we 
do  not  remember  ever  to  have  read  or  ever  to  have  heard 
any  expression  of  respect  and  admiration  for  the  man  to 
whom  we  owe  so  much  instruction  and  amusement. 

Thomas  B.  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Boswell' s  Johnson, 


Emphasis  229 

Nay,  sometimes  a  strange  enough  hypothesis  has  been 
started  of  him  (Boswell)  ;  as  if  it  were  in  virtue  even  of 
these  same  bad  quaHties  that  he  did  his  good  work ;  as  if 
it  were  the  very  fact  of  his  being  among  the  worst  men  in 
the  world  that  had  enabled  him  to  write  one  of  the  best 
books  therein !  Falser  hypothesis,  we  may  venture  to  say, 
never  rose  in  human  soul.  Bad  is  by  its  nature  negative, 
land  can  do  nothing;  whatsoever  enables  us  to  do  anything 
is  by  its  very  nature  good.  Alas,  that  there  should  be 
teachers  in  Israel,  or  even  learners,  to  whom  this  world- 
ancient  fact  is  still  problematical,  or  even  deniable !  Bos- 
well wrote  a  good  Book  because  he  had  a  heart  and  an  eye 
to  discern  Wisdom,  and  an  utterance  to  render  it  forth ; 
because  of  his  free  insight,  his  lively  talent, — above  all,  of 
his  Love  and  childlike  Open-mindedness. 
Thomas  Carlyle  :  Essay  on  BosweU's  Life  of  Johnson. 

3.  After  reading  a  page  or  tv^o  in  an  essay  of  Ma- 
caulay's,  write  down  the  words  and  phrases  that  you 
remember  best.  By  what  means  is  each  emphasized  in 
the  sentence  where  it  occurs  ?  Try  the  same  method  of 
observation  in  your  reading  in  Burke,  or  Hawthorne, 
or  in  a  recent  novel  or  magazine  article. 

4.  Rearrange  the  parts  of  the  following  sentences  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  of  Coherence  and  Em- 
phasis. First  determine  what  words  deserve  especial 
emphasis,  and  place  these  at  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
if  possible. 

I.    Subject,  no  heretic  ,  .  .  save  a  few  Anabaptists . . . 

whom  the  whole  nation 
loathed  as  blasphemers 
of  God  .  .  .  and  dreaded 
as  enemies  of  social 
order  .  .  . 


23© 

Predicate  , 


Sentences 


was 


2.     Subject,  the  pedant 
Pred.  had  struggled 


"  sent  to  the  fire  "... 
through      all      her      long 
reign  .  .  . 

coarse  .  .  .  ungainly   .    .    . 

ill-dressed  .  .  . 
.up  to  eminence  and  com- 
mand .  .  . 

manfully  .  .  . 

through  all  these  things  . . . 


3.     Subj.  there  ...  a  certain 
mysticism  .  .  . 
Pred.  (there)  lay  .  .  .       yet   at   the   bottom   of   all 

his    (Burke's)    thoughts 
about    communities    and 
governments  .  .  . 
in    spite   of    the    predomi- 
nance .  .  . 

of  practical  sagacity  .  .  . 
of  the  habits  and  spirit 
of  public  business  .  .  . 
of  vigorous  actuality  .  .  . 
in  Burke's  character  .  .  . 


4.     Subj.     I 
Pred.    must 


tell 


.  .you 
that 
(S) 
(P) 


.  .  .  fairly 

I  .  .  . 

have  ...  no  idea  of  a 
liberty  .  .  unconnec- 
ted with  honesty  and 
justice  .  .  . 

so  far  as  my  principles 
are  concerned  .  .  . 

principles  that  I  hope 
will  only  depart  with 
my  last  breath  .  .  . 


m,^ 


Emphasis  231 

5.  Suhj.    it  .  .  .  that  sensibility  of  principle  .  .  . 

that  chastity  of  honour  .  .  . 

which  felt  a  stain  like  a  wound  .  .  . 

and  .  .  . 
_  under  which  vice  itself  lost  half  its 

evil,  by  losing  all  its  grossness  .  .  . 
which  ennobled  whatever  it 

touched  .  .  . 
which  inspired  courage  whilst  it  miti*» 

gated  ferocity  .  .  . 
Pred.    is  gone  .  .  . 

6.  Subj.    a  mother  and  her  little  boy  .  .  . 

Pred.    sat .  .  .  talking  about  the  Great  Stone  Face  . . . 
at  the  door  of  their  cottage  .  .  . 
one  afternoon  .  .  . 

7.  Conn,    then 

Suhj.    the  Great  Stone  Face  .  .  . 

Pred.    was  .  . .  formed  .  .  a  work  of  Nature  .  .  . 

in   her   mood   of   majestic 

playfulness  .  .  . 
on   the   perpendicular   side 

of  a  mountain  .  .  . 
by  some  immense 
rocks  .  .  . 
{S)  which  .  .  . 
(P)    had    been    thrown 
together  .  .  . 
in    such    a    position 

as  .  .  . 
to       resemble       the 
features     of     the 
human        counte- 
nance .  .  . 
precisely  .  .  . 
when      viewed      at 
a      proper       dis- 
tance •  .  . 


232  Sentences 

5.  Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  improving  their 
emphasis.  Words  in  italics  are  to  be  given  special  em- 
phasis in  the  rewritten  sentences. 

1.  He  was  always  ready  to  do  you  a  service,  kind,  and  cheer- 
ful. 

2.  Down  at  the  edge  of  the  water,  casting  a  softening  gloom 
about  them  as  they  bend  over  the  stream,  are  some  willows. 

3.  Further  on,  vaguely  outlined  in  the  dusk,  dark  and  mysteri- 
ous entrances  to  other  caves  could  be  seen. 

4.  You  see  the  front  of  the  house  first,  which  looks  large  and 
comfortable,  on  nearing  it. 

5.  There  are  children  romping  on  the  lawn  in  front  of  the 
house,  and  many  trees  about  it,  and  beautiful  flower  gardens. 

6.  On  the  point  of  climbing  down,  I  peered  through  the  cur- 
tain; and  there  sleeping  unconcernedly  was  my  beloved  sister  in 
the  middle  of  the  aisle. 

7.  Recent  rains  have  formed  deep  gullies,  and  the  prospect  is 
not  pleasing  to  a  nervous  city  girl. 

8.  It  would  seem  almost  absurd  to  say  that  in  a  country 
whose  existence  has  been  so  short  as  that  of  America,  there  could 
be  such  a  thing  as  a  deserted  village. 

9.  Nevertheless  such  places  do  exist,  and  to  visit  one  is  an 
experience  never  to  be  forgotten,  even  should  it  not  prove  as  in- 
teresting to  others  as  it  did  to  me. 

10.  The  one  window  in  the  house  has  but  six  panes,  and  as 
one  sees  it  he  is  impressed  with  the  thought  that  it  serves  well  its 
purpose  as  a  ventilator,  for  two  of  the  panes  of  glass  are  broken. 

6.  Criticize  themes  assigned  to  you  and  suggest  emen- 
dations according  to  the  following  outline. 

Sentences.     Unity,     (a)    Too  long,     (b)    Too  short. 

(c)   Subordination  of  parts. 
Coherence.     Rules  i,  2,  3,  4. 
.  *  •       Emphasis,     (a)   Climax,     (b)   The  End. 


Emphasis 


233 


II 


7.  Note  the  repetition  of  words  or  phrases  in  Lin- 
coln's Gettysburg  Oration,  Portia's  speech  on  Mercy 
("Merchant  of  Venice,"  IV,  i,  IL  184-205),  Mark 
Antony's  Funeral  Oration  ("Julius  Caesar,'"  III,  2). 
Do  the  repetitions  emphasize  the  words  ?  Do  they  add 
to  the  force  of  the  speeches?  Do  they  add  to  the 
beauty  of  the  style? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  QUALITY  OF  BEAUTY  IN  SENTENCES 

1.  Style  possesses  the  quality  of  beauty  when  in  ad- 
dition to  being  clear  and  interesting  it  is  attractive  and 
pleasing  to  the  reader.  Attention  has  been  centered 
in  this  book  on  the  means  by  which  the  essential  qual- 
ities of  clearness  and  force  may  be  attained  by  the 
beginner  in  the  practical  art  of  rhetoric,  and  only 
occasional  reference  has  been  made  to  the  harmony  be- 
tween thought  and  expression,  and  the  ease  in  com- 
position which  belong  to  the  finer  art  that  seeks  the 
quality  of  beauty.  This  quality  can  be  attained  only 
through  the  mastery  of  all  the  units  of  composition, 
but  it  depends  especially  on  the  use  of  words  and  sen- 
tences. In  sentences  we  can  mark  more  definitely  than 
in  the  longer  units  of  composition  some  of  the  things 
that  most  people  dislike  and  some  of  the  traits  that 
afford  most  people  enjoyment.  We  must  remember, 
however,  that  the  best  way  to  appreciate  and  under- 
stand the  quality  of  beauty  is  not  through  rules  or  dis- 
cussion, but  by  the  study  of  the  writers  of  prose  who 
have  succeeded  in  retaining  the  admiration  of  their 
readers. 

2.  The  principles  of  composition  must  be  adhered  to 
in  any  effort  to  make  style  attractive  and  delightful. 

234 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       235 

Sentences  that  contain  matters  distinct  in  thought,  or 
that  follow  no  logical  arrangement,  or  present  the  least 
important  matters  at  the  most  important  places,  annoy 
and  distract  every  reader.  Careful  observance  of  the 
principles  not  only  secures  sentences  that  are  organic, 
straightforward,  well-proportioned  expressions  of 
thought,  but  also  trains  a  student  to  write  with  ease 
and  individuality.  The  same  idea  may  be  expressed  in 
a  dozen  different  sentences,  and  yet  each  may  be  an  or- 
ganic whole  in  accord  with  the  principle  of  Unity.  In 
developing  a  topic  into  a  paragraph,  no  two  persons 
would  compose  their  sentences  alike,  for  each  man 
would  put  something  of  himself  into  them.  Great 
variety  in  length,  periodicity,  construction,  and  ar- 
rangement is  permitted  by  both  grammatical  rules  and 
the  principles  of  composition.  These  must  certainly  be 
observed  if  sentences  are  to  please  the  reader,  but  these 
alone  will  not  insure  the  quality  of  beauty. 

3-  We  cannot  attempt,  indeed,  to  solve  the  secrets  of 
creating  the  impression  of  beauty,  but  we  may  con- 
sider four  traits,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
mentioned,  that  sentences  almost  always  possess  when 
the  style  appears  to  readers  of  good  taste — Variety, 
Conciseness,  Rhythm,  and  Suggestiveness. 

4-  Variety  is  an  attribute  of  beauty  in  sentences  just 
as  much  as  it  is  in  a  landscape  or  a  picture.  Nothing 
offends  more  than  sameness.  A  writer  whose  sentences 
are  all  on  one  model  wearies  his  readers  and  fails  to 
suit  his  expression  to  the  varied  demands  of  his  sub- 
ject.    Thoughts  and  feelings  are  not  all  alike,  and  they 


236  Sentences 

are  not  to  be  expressed  in  the  same  fashion.  So,  while 
our  sentences  must  be  grammatical  and  perfectly  intel- 
ligible, their  structure  should  be  continually  varied.  We 
should  strive  to  have  at  our  command  as  many  con- 
structions, as  many  methods  of  expression  as  possible. 
5«  There  are  two  constructions  in  particular  which 
are  greatly  overused  by  many  writers.  The  first  is 
the  participial  phrase.  In  any  particular  case  it  may 
be  the  best  possible  construction,  but  it  is  an  awkward 
one  to  use  repeatedly.  The  following  sentences  might 
not  be  beautiful  if  the  participles  gave  place  to  other 
constructions,  but  they  would  certainly  be  less  clumsy. 

1.  The  little  bell  over  the  door  tinkling  loudly,  Miss 
Hepzibah,  starting  to  her  feet,  fairly  rushed  into  the  shop. 

2.  The  wind  was  blowing  the  snow  into  a  hurricane, 
and  she,  being  thin,  could  not  stand  against  its  making 
her  fall  down. 

3.  On  many  people  now  leaving  the  car,  we  went 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  viewing  the  scenery. 

The  second  overused  construction  is  the  sentence  con- 
sisting of  two  independent  clauses  connected  by  "  and  " 
or  "  but."  The  construction  is  a  useful  one,  but  it  does 
not  adapt  itself  to  all  ideas  and  it  soon  becomes  monot- 
onous. In  revision  the  student  should  change  the  form 
of  as  many  of  these  sentences  as  he  can,  until  he  has 
trained  himself  to  use  th^  construction  with  modera- 
tion. In  the  same  way  he  should  learn  to  avoid  the 
very  frequent  use  of  any  one  form  of  sentence,  or  any 
particular  grammatical  construction. 
6.  Conciseness  has  already  been  dwelt  on  as  an  es- 
sential in  well-constructed  sentences.     Beginners  are 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       237 

likely  to  have  the  false  notion  that  diffuseness  is  grace- 
ful; on  the  contrary,  the  simplest  expression  is  likely 
to  be  both  the  clearest  and  the  most  beautiful.  One 
of^  the  most  objectionable  forms  of  diffuseness  is 
the  repetition  of  words  or  phrases.  Sometimes  such 
repetition  is  necessary  for  clearness,  especially  in  ex- 
position; and  sometimes  it  may  be  used  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis.  But  the  words  repeated  must  be  impor- 
tant ones;  the  repetition  of  unimportant  words  is  al- 
ways annoying.  Diffuseness  is,  in  other  cases,  due  to 
unnecessary  details,  or  to  wordiness  in  phrasing.  In 
the  following  sentences  the  words  inclosed  in  paren- 
theses are  of  little  or  no  value.  The  omissions  and 
changes  that  are  desirable  should  be  carefully  noticed, 
for  they  are  typical  of  many  cases. 

r.  Near  the  center  of  the  roof  is  a  stovepipe  (which 
serves  the  purpose  of  a  chimney). 

2.  In  a  gulch  (a  half  hundred  feet  deep,  over  Minne- 
haha creek,)  sixty  feet  below  (where  the  laughing  water 
of)  Minnehaha  Falls  (dashes  over  the  shining  rocks,)  is 
a  little  foot-bridge  about  the  length  and  width  of  a  com- 
mon street  car. 

3.  Diffuse.  Along  this  narrow,  shady  promenade  are 
found  rustic  seats  where  the  happy  pairs,  in  the  afternoon 
strolls,  love  to  sit  and  listen  to  the  little  brook  as  it  dashes 
over  the  stones  and  sniff  the  breezes  scented  by  the  pine 
and  balsam  trees  from  the  neighboring  hills  beyond,  and 
from  the  impending  cliffs  which  shelter  them  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun. 

3.  Corrected.  Along  this  narrow  shady  promenade 
beneath  the  overhanging  cliffs  are  rustic  seats  where  one 
may  sit  and  listen  to  the  little  brook  and  sniff  the  breezes 
fragrant  with  pine  and  balsam. 


238  Sentences 

Another  source  of  diffuseness  is  in  the  use  of  con- 
necting words.  These  should  always  be  used  with 
precision,  but  they  need  not  be  conspicuous  or  cum- 
bersome. Lincoln's  wonderful  description  of  our 
democratic  ideal,  "  government  of  the  people,  by  the 
people,  and  for  the  people,"  is  a  remarkable  example  of 
the  use  of  connectives,  to  promote  conciseness.  In  the 
choice  of  connectives,  as  in  the  choice  of  constructions, 
and  details,  one  gains  in  conciseness  and  beauty  of 
style  by  taking  the  simplest. 

7.  Rhythm  is  found  in  almost  all  great  prose,  espe- 
cially in  emotional  and  imaginative  prose.  It  is  not 
the  same  as  the  rhythm  of  poetry,  which  is  measured 
rhythm  or  meter,  although  both  depend  on  the  suc- 
cession of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  In  verse, 
certain  combinations  of  accented  and  unaccented  syl- 
lables are  called  feet,  and  a  certain  number  of  feet  make 
up  a  line.  For  example,  blank  verse,  unrhymed  iambic 
pentameter,  consists  of  lines  of  five  feet;  and  each  foot 
is  usually  an  iambus — that  is,  an  unaccented  syllable 
followed  by  an  accented.  So,  although  there  are  some 
variations,  "  Paradise  Lost "  and  Shakespeare's  plays 
can  be  scanned  according  to  this  regular  scheme ;  as : 

O,  what/a  rogue/and  peas/ant  slave/am  I ! 

Is  it/not  mon/strous  that/this  play/er  here, 

But  in/a  fic/tion,  in/a  dream/of  pas/sion 

Could  force/his  soul/so  to/his  own/conceit.    .    .    . 

Prose  is  not  written  with  regular  recurring  meter,  nor 
is  it  divided  into  lines  with  the  same  number  of  ac- 
cented syllables.     Regular  meter  is  out  of  place  in 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       239 

prose;  its  rhythm  is  irregular,  unmeasured,  not  amen- 
able tp  rule.  But  in  all  beautiful  expression  of  strongly 
felt  emotion,  rhythm  is  clearly  discernible.  So  the 
Lord's  Prayer  owes  some  of  its  noble  beauty  to  its 
solemn  rhythm.  If  we  try  to  indicate  this  as  we  in- 
dicate meter,  we  find  that  the  feet  are  not  as  regularly 
of  one  kind  as  in  verse,  nor  the  lines  of  equal  metrical 
length;  but  still  the  rhythm  seems  mainly  due,  as  in 
iambic  verse,  to  the  alternation  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables. 

Our  fa/ther,  who  art/in  heav/en, 

Hallow/ed  be/thy  name, 

Thy  king/dom  c6me,/thy  will/be  done 

On  earth/as  it  is/in  heav/en. 

Give  us/this  day /our  dai/ly  bread  .  .  . 

8.  As  is  the  case  with  the  other  attributes  of  beauty 
in  style,  it  is  easier  to  tell  how  to  destroy  rhythm  than 
how  to  produce  it.  A  long  succession  of  monosyllabic 
words  is  rarely  rhythmical ;  as — "  These  new  tests  may 
be  put  to  use  in  the  course  of  time,  but  they  have  not 
been  yet."  A  number  of  unaccented  syllables  in  succes- 
sion also  destroys  rhythm.  Any  combination  of  words 
that  sounds  unpleasantly  interferes  with  rhythm; 
such  as  the  collocation  of  harsh  consonant  groups,  of 
adverbs  in  -ly,  or  words  ending  in  -ing;  or  a  succes- 
sion of  syllables  difficult  to  pronounce.  The  student 
should  read  his  themes  aloud  and  consider  the  way 
they  sound.  By  this  practice  he  will  correct  faults  in 
euphony,  and  euphony  is  necessary  for  rhythm.  By 
forming  the  habit  of  reading  aloud  passages  of  the 


240  Sentences 

best  prose,  he  will  learn  to  appreciate  the  quality  ,of 
rhythm  in  the  sentences  of  others. 
9.  Suggestiveness  is  perhaps  the  most  essential  at- 
tribute to  beauty  in  style.  Sentences  not  only  express 
definitely  certain  thoughts  and  feelings,  they  suggest 
others.  This  suggestiveness  arises  largely  from  the 
words  used,  but  in  no  small  part  from  the  form  of 
the  sentences.  Write  an  account  of  the  exciting  finish 
of  a  race ;  and  your  clauses  naturally  become  short,  sev- 
eral crowd  into  a  sentence,  there  are  few  connectives, 
there  is  no  elaborate  structure.  The  form  of  the  sen- 
tences suggests  rapidity  and  excitement.  Take,  for 
example,  the  description  of  the  shipwreck  in  "  David 
Copperfield,"  and  note  how  the  movement  of  the  sen- 
tences suggests  the  nervous  tension  and  breathless 
action.  Such  sentences  would  not  be  suited  to  many 
subjects ;  to  the  description,  for  instance,  of  a  sunrise. 
They  may  be  compared  with  a  single  sentence  in  which 
Ruskin  has  described  a  sunrise  in  the  Alps,  and  has 
also  insisted  on  the  preeminence  of  Turner  as  a  painter 
of  clouds. 


And  then  wait  yet  for  one  hour,  until  the  east  again  be- 
comes purple,  and  the  heaving  mountains,  rolling  against 
it  in  darkness,  like  waves  of  a  wild  sea,  are  drowned  one 
by  one  in  the  glory  of  its  burning;  watch  the  white  gla- 
ciers blaze  in  their  winding  paths  about  the  mountains, 
like  mighty  serpents  with  scales  of  fire ;  watch  the  colum- 
nar peaks  of  solitary  snow,  kindling  downwards,  chasm 
by  chasm,  each  in  itself  a  new  morning;  their  long  ava- 
lanches cast  down  in  keen  streams  brighter  than  the  light- 
ning, sending  each  his  tribute  of  driven  snow,  like  altar- 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       241 

smoke,  up  to  the  heaven;  the  rose-light  of  their  silent 
domes  flushing  that  heaven  about  them  and  above  them, 
piercing  with  purer  light  through  its  purple  lines  of 
lifted  cloud,  casting  a  new  glory  on  every  wreath  as  it 
passes  by,  until  the  whole  heaven — one  scarlet  canopy — 
is  interwoven  with  a  roof  of  waving  flame,  and  tossing, 
vault  beyond  vault,  as  with  the  drifted  wings  of  many 
companies  of  angels ;  and  then,  when  you  can  look  no  more 
for  gladness,  and  when  you  are  bowed  down  with  fear 
and  love  of  the  Maker  and  Doer  of  this,  tell  me  who  has 
best  delivered  His  message  unto  men ! 

John  Ruskin  :  Modern  Painters. 

Turn  now  to  the  stories  of  Ruth  (Book  of  Ruth,  Chap- 
ter 2)  and  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Genesis,  Chapter  22) 
in  the  authorized  version,  and  you  will  see  how  the 
simplest  constructions  and  the  repetition  of  construc- 
tions may  suggest  solemnity  and  sincerity  of  emotion. 
Thus  sentences  may  be  formed  in  complete  harmony 
with  the  thought  and  feeling  to  be  expressed.  They 
may  not  only  express  ideas  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
reader,  but  may  also,  by  their  construction,  their 
rhythm,  and  movement,  awake  in  the  reader  a  state  of 
feeling  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  waiter. 
10.  A  considerable  range  of  suggestion  may  be  at- 
tained by  any  of  us  in  our  sentences.  The  different 
effects  of  long  and  short  sentences  have  already  been 
discussed  on  pages  175,  176.  All  sentences,  in  fact,  are 
bound  to  suggest  something  beyond  the  thought  that 
they  directly  express.  Short,  jerky,  incomplete  sen- 
tences; artfully  balanced  sentences;  long,  loose,  ram- 
bling sentences — each  impresses  on  the  reader  some 

suggestion  due  to  its  form.     Certain  kinds  of  sugges- 
16 


242  Sentences 

tion  can  be  consciously  avoided.  Artificiality,  pre- 
tentiousness, eccentricity,  are  not  impressions  derived 
from  the  best  prose.  We  are  less  likely  to  attain  beauty 
of  style  by  trying  to  write  artistically  than  by  trying 
to  write  simply.  Humor,  fun,  excitement,  sorrow,  ad- 
miration will  find  their  own  proper  expressions  if  we 
are  content  to  express  what  we  think  and  feel  as  sim- 
ply and  truly  as  possible. 

II.  The  quality  of  beauty  in  sentences  is  not  to  be 
sought  as  something  apart  by  itself,  but  as  something 
that  can  come  only  after  careful  observance  of  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  the  principles  of  composition. 
First,  we  should  make  sure  that  our  sentences  are  well 
constructed;  then  we  may  consider  what  things  de- 
tract from  the  reader's  delight,  and  what  qualities  add 
to  his  enjoyment.  Conciseness,  variety,  rhythm,  and 
suggestiveness  are  among  the  attributes  that  go  to 
make  up  the  power  to  please  the  reader  esthetically. 
The  first  two  are  in  some  degree  within  the  reach  of 
every  writer,  the  last  two  can  at  least  be  studied  in  the 
prose  of  the  great  masters,  and  can  be  attempted  as 
we  advance  in  the  mastery  of  the  principles.  Even  if 
the  power  of  creating  beauty  does  not  come  to  us,  we 
can  learn  to  avoid  whatever  interferes  with  the  en- 
joyment of  our  sentences  by  people  of  good  taste,  and 
we  can  learn  to  appreciate  fully  the  quality  of  beauty  in 
the  writings  of  others. 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       243 

EXERCISES 

V 

I 

I.  The  last  five  chapters  have  suppHed  abundant  di- 
rections for  the  analysis  of  sentences.  The  following 
outline  may  be  used. 

I.     Kind  of  Sentence. 
A.     Long  or  short. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


B. 

Loose  or  periodic. 

C. 

Simple,    compound,    or   complex 

D. 

Other  peculiarities  of  structure; 
tive,  balanced,  etc. 

interroga- 

Unity 

A. 

In  the  contents  of  the  sentence. 

B. 

In  the  structure  of  the  sentence. 

Coherence. 

A. 

Rule  I,  Grammatical  Relations. 

B. 

Rule  2,  Connectives. 

C. 

Rule  3,  Order  of  Parts. 

D. 

Rule  4,  Parallel  ConstructionSo 

Emphasis. 

A. 

Various  means;  capitals,  italics, 

repetition, 

inversion,  peculiarities  of  structure. 

B. 

Climax. 

C. 

The  beginning  and  the  end. 

Beauty. 

A. 

Variety. 

B. 

Conciseness. 

C. 

Rhythm,  including  euphony. 

D. 

Suggestiveness. 

2.  The  following  list  of  sentences  includes  some  of 
the  most  famous  in  our  literature.  They  may  be  an- 
alyzed according  to  the  outline  in  Exercise  i. 


244  Sentences 

1.  O  eloquent,  just,  and  mighty  Death!  whom  none 
could  advise,  thou  hast  persuaded ;  what  none  hath  dared, 
thou  hast  done;  and  whom  all  the  world  hath  flattered, 
thou  only  hast  cast  out  of  the  world  and  despised ;  thou 
hast  drawn  together  all  the  far-stretched  greatness,  all  the 
pride,  cruelty,  and  ambition  of  man,  and  covered  it  all  over 
with  these  two  narrow  words,  Hie  jacet. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

2.  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute ;  nor  to  believe 
and  take  for  granted ;  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse ;  but 
to  weigh  and  consider.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted, 
others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and 
digested ;  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts ; 
others  to  be  read,  but  not  curiously ;  and  some  few  to  be 
read  wholly,  and  with  diligence  and  attention.  .  .  .  Read- 
ing maketh  a  full  man ;  conference  a  ready  man ;  and  writ- 
ing an  exact  man.  Francis  Bacon. 

3.  When  all  is  done,  human  life  is,  at  the  greatest  and 
the  best,  but  like  a  froward  child,  that  must  be  played 
with  and  humoured  a  little  to  keep  it  quiet  till  it  falls  asleep, 
and  then  the  care  is  over. 

Sir  William  Temple. 

4.  A  little  generous  prudence,  a  little  forbearance  of 
one  another,  and  some  grain  of  charity  might  win  all  these 
diligencies  to  join  and  unite  into  one  general  and  brotherly 
search  after  Truth ;  could  we  but  forego  this  prelatical  tra- 
dition of  crowding  free  consciences  and  Christian  liberties 
into  canons  and  precepts  of  men.  John  Milton. 

5.  Having  thus  taken  my  resolutions  to  march  on 
boldly  in  the  cause  of  virtue  and  good  sense,  and  to  annoy 
their  adversaries  in  whatever  degree  or  rank  of  men  they 
may  be  found,  I  shall  be  deaf  for  the  future  to  all  the  re- 
monstrances that  shall  be  made  to  me  on  this  account. . . . 
In  short,  if  I  meet  anything  in  city,  court,  or  country,  that 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       245 

shocks  modesty  or  good  manners,  I  shall  use  my  utmost 

endeavours  to  make  an  example  of  it.     I  must  however  in- 

treat  every  particular  person,  who  does  me  the  honour  to 

be  a  reader  of  this  paper,  never  to  think  himself,  or  any 

one  of  his  friends  or  enemies,  aimed  at  in  what  is  said: 

for  I  promise  him,  never  to  draw  a  faulty  character  which 

does  not  fit  at  least  a  thousand  people;  or  to  publish  a 

single  paper,  that  is  not  written  in  the  spirit  of  benevolence 

and  with  a  love  to  mankind.  ,  . 

Joseph  Addison. 

6.  What  he  attempted,  he  performed ;  he  is  never  fee- 
ble, and  he  did  not  wish  to  be  energetic ;  he  is  never  rapid, 
and  he  never  stagnates.  His  sentences  have  neither  stud- 
ied amplitude,  nor  affected  brevity:  his  periods,  though 
not  diligently  rounded,  are  voluble  and  easy.  Whoever 
wishes  to  attain  an  English  style,  familiar  but  not  coarse, 
and  elegant  but  not  ostentatious,  must  give  his  days  and 

nights  to  the  volumes  of  Addison.     ^  t 

^  Samuel  Johnson. 

7.  It  is  now  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  since  I  saw  the 

Queen  of  France,  then  the  Dauphiness,  at  Versailles ;  arid 

surely  never  lighted  on  this  orb,  which  she  hardly  seemed 

to  touch,  a  more  delightful  vision.     I  saw  her  just  above 

the  horizon,  decorating  and  cheering  the  elevated  sphere 

she  just  began  to  move  in ;  glittering  like  the  morning  star, 

full  of  life,  and  splendour  and  joy.        t-  t> 

^  •'  -^         Edmund  Burke. 


8.  (Petrarch's  Vision  of  Death.)  The  milder  and 
calmer  Genius,  the  third,  in  proportion  as  I  took  courage 
to  contemplate  him,  regarded  me  with  more  and  more 
complacency.  He  held  neither  flower  nor  arrow  as  the 
others  did ;  but  throwing  back  the  clusters  of  dark  curls 
that  overshadowed  his  countenance,  he  presented  to  me  his 
hand,  openly  and  benignly.  I  shrank  on  looking  at  him 
so  near,  and  yet  I  sighed  to  love  him.  He  smiled,  not  with- 
out an  expression  of  pity,  at  perceiving  my  diffidence,  my 


246 


Sentences 


timidity;  for  I  remembered  how  soft  was  the  hand  of 
Sleep,  how  warm  and  entrancing  was  Love's.  By  degrees 
I  became  ashamed  of  my  ingratitude ;  and  turning  my  face 
away,  I  held  out  my  arms,  and  I  felt  my  neck  within  his. 
Composure  strewed  and  allayed  all  the  throbbings  of  my 
bosom ;  the  coolness  of  freshest  morning  breathed  around  ; 
the  heavens  seemed  to  open  above  me ;  while  the  beautiful 
cheek  of  my  deliverer  rested  on  my  head. 

Walter  Savage  Landor. 

9.  Upwards  of  five-hundred-thousand  two-legged 
animals  without  feathers  lie  around  us  in  horizontal  po- 
sitions ;  their  heads  all  in  nightcaps,  and  full  of  the  fool- 
ishest  dreams.  Riot  cries  aloud,  and  staggers  and  swag- 
gers in  his  rank  dens  of  shame;  and  the  Mother,  with 
streaming  hair,  kneels  over  her  pallid  dying  infant,  whose 
cracked  lips  only  her  tears  now  moisten. — All  these 
heaped  and  huddled  together,  with  nothing  but  a  little 
carpentry  and  masonry  between  them ; — crammed  in,  like 
salted  fish  in  their  barrel;  or  weltering,  shall  I  say,  like 
an  Egyptian  pitcher  of  tamed  Vipers,  each  struggling  to 
get  its  head  above  the  others :  such  work  goes  on  under 

that  smoke-counterpane!  ^  ^ 

^  Thomas  Carlyle. 

10.  (The  agent  of  a  London  company  at  Athens.)  He 
would  look  over  the  ^gean  from  the  height  he  had  as- 
cended ;  he  would  follow  with  his  eye  the  chain  of  islands, 
which,  starting  from  the  Sunian  headland,  seemed  to  offer 
the  fabled  divinities  of  Attica,  when  they  would  visit  their 
Ionian  cousins,  a  sort  of  viaduct  thereto  across  the  sea: 
but  that  fancy  would  not  occur  to  him,  nor  any  admira- 
tion of  the  dark  violet  billows  with  their  white  edges  down 
below ;  nor  of  those  graceful,  fan-like  jets  of  silver  upon 
the  rocks,  which  slowly  rise  aloft  like  water  spirits  from 
the  deep,  then  shiver,  and  break,  and  spread,  and  shroud 
themselves,  and  disappear  in  a  soft  mist  of  foam ;  nor  of 
the  gentle,  incessant  heaving  and  panting  of  the  whole 
liquid  plain ;  nor  of  the  long  waves,  keeping  steady  time, 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       247 

like  a  line  of  soldiery  as  they  resound  upon  the  hollow 
shore, — he  would  not  deign  to  notice  that  restless  living 
element  at  all  except  to  bless  his  stars  that  he  was  not 

^P°^  ^  '  John  Henry  Cardinal  Newman. 

II.  At  the  usual  evening  hour  the  chapel  bell  began 
to  toll,  and  Thomas  Newcome's  hands  outside  the  bed 
feebly  beat  time.  And  just  as  the  last  bell  struck,  a  pecu- 
Har  sweet  smile  shone  over  his  face,  and  he  lifted  up  his 
head  a  little,  and  quickly  said  "  Adsum !  "  and  fell  back. 
It  was  the  word  we  used  at  school,  when  names  were 
called ;  and  lo,  he,  whose  heart  was  as  that  of  a  little  child, 
had  answered  to  his  name,  and  stood  in  the  presence  of 

The  Master.  William  Makepeace  Thackeray. 


12.  Is  it  not  the  chief  disgrace  of  the  world  not  to  be 
a  unit,  not  to  be  reckoned  one  character,  not  to  yield  that 
particular  fruit,  which  each  man  was  created  to  bear ;  but 
to  be  reckoned  in  the  gross,  in  the  hundred,  or  thousand, 
of  the  party,  the  section,  to  which  we  belong;  and  our 
opinion  predicted  geographically,  as  the  north,  or  the 
south?  Not  so,  brothers  and  friends, — please  God,  ours 
shall  not  be  so.  We  will  vi^alk  on  our  own  feet ;  we  will 
work  with  our  own  hands ;  we  will  speak  our  own  minds. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


13.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great 
task  remaining  before  us,  that  from  these  honored  dead  we 
take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave 
the  last  full  measure  of  devotion ;  that  we  here  highly  re- 
solve that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain ;  that  this 
nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and 
that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the 
people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

Abraham  Lincoln. 


248 


Sentences 


3.  Rewrite  the  following  passage;  from  each  paren- 
thesis  choose  one  expression  and  reject  the  others. 
Remember  that  the  simplest  constructions,  consistent 
with  clearness,  are  most  likely  to  give  beauty  of  style. 

I.  So  Richard  Digby  took  an  axe,  (in  order  to  hew, 
that  he  might  hew,  for  hewing,  to  hew)  space  enough  (to 
build,  for)  a  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  (also,  and,  with) 
some  few  other  necessaries,  (particularly,  most  noticeable 
of  all,  especially)  a  sword  and  gun  (to,  in  order  to,  that 
he  might)  smite  and  slay  (any  one  who  intruded,  any  in- 
truder) (upon,  on,  into)  his  hallowed  seclusion,  (then, 
and,  thereupon)  plunged  into  the  dreariest  depths  of  the 
forest.  2.  (On  its.  On  reaching  its)  verge,  however,  he 
paused  (for  the  space  of  a,  for  a,  a)  moment  (to,  in  order 
to,  that  he  might)  shake  off  the  dust  of  his  feet  against  the 
village  (in  which,  where)  he  had  dwelt,  and  (for  the  pur- 
pose of  invoking,  to  invoke,  in  order  to  invoke)  a  curse 
(on,  upon,  against)  the  meeting-house  (which,  for,  since, 
because)  he  regarded  (it)  as  a  temple  of  heathen  idolatry. 
3.  (A  curiosity  excited  him.  He  was  curious.  He  felt  a 
curiosity)  (besides,  in  addition,  also,  moreover)  to  see 
whether  the  fire  and  brimstone  would  not  rush  down  from 
heaven  at  once,  (considering  the  fact  that,  now  that,  since) 
the  one  righteous  man  had  provided  for  his  own  safety.  4. 
But,  (as,  when  he  saw  that,  seeing  that)  the  sunshine  con- 
tinued to  fall  peacefully  (on,  upon,  over)  the  cottages  and 
fields,  and  (that)  the  husbandmen  labored  and  children 
played,  and  (as,  when,  that)  there  were  many  tokens  of 
present  happiness,  and  nothing  ominous  of  a  speedy  judg- 
ment, he  turned  away  (in  no  little  disappointment,  some- 
what disappointed,  a  disappointed  man).  5.  (As  he  went 
farther.  Going  farther.  The  farther  he  went,)  however, 
and  (as  he  felt  himself  lonelier,  growing  more  lonely,  the 
lonelier  he  felt  himself),  and  (as  the  trees  stood  thicker, 
seeing  the  trees  stand  thicker,  the  thicker  the  trees  stood) 
(on  the  sides  of,  along)  his  path,  and  (as  the  shadows 
grew  darker,  the  shadows  darker,  the  darker  the  shadows) 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       249 

(overhead,  above  his  head,)  (the  more,  so  much  the 
more,  more  and  more)  (did  Richard  Digby  exult,  Richard 
Digby  exulted).  6.  (He  talked  to  himself,  Talking  to 
himself.  As  he  talked  to  himself)  (as  he  strode,  striding, 
he  strode)  onv^ard;  (he  read,  reading)  his  Bible  to  him- 
self (sitting,  he  sat,  as  he  sat)  beneath  the  trees;  and,  as 
the  gloom  of  the  forest  hid  the  blessed  sky,  (I  was  at  the 
point  of  adding,  I  had*  almost  added)  that,  at  morning, 
noon,  and  eventide,  he  prayed  to  himself.  7.  (He  found 
this  mode  of  life  so  congenial,  So  congenial  was  this  mode 
of  life  to  his  disposition,  He  was  so  congenially  disposed 
to  this  mode  of  life.  Finding  this  mode  of  life  so  congenial 
to  his  disposition)  (that)  he  often  laughed  to  himself, 
(but,  however,  nevertheless)  was  displeased  (when,  as, 
if)  an  echo  tossed  (him,  to  him,  upon  him)  back  the  long 
loud  roar. 


4-  Select  a  passage  from  your  reading  in  which  the 
sentences  are  noteworthy  for  their  rhythm  or  sugges- 
tiveness.  Bring  the  passage  to  the  class,  where  it  will 
be  made  the  basis  for  discussion  of  style. 
5.  From  each  pair  of  sentences  in  the  following  list, 
select  the  one  that  best  expresses  the  thought.  The 
merits  of  the  sentences  as  translations  from  foreign 
languages  should  be  disregarded,  and  they  should  be 
judged  solely  as  English  sentences.  Determine  your 
reasons  for  preferring  the  one  to  the  other,  and  arrange 
these  reasons,  as  far  as  possible,  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  of  analysis  given  in  Exercise  i.  Consider  par- 
ticularly whether  either  sentence  has  positive  faults; 
whether  one  is  better  in  some  respects  and  the  other  in 
other  respects;  whether  your  reasons  for  preferring 
one   relate   to   its   Unity,    Coherence,   or    Emphasis; 


250 


Sentences 


whether  your  preference  depends  on  the  choice  of  a 
construction,  on  the  choice  of  words,  or  any  peculiar- 
ity not  yet  commented  on  in  the  book.  Can  you  com- 
pose a  sentence  that  will  express  the  thought  better 
than  either  example? 

FROM  XENOPHON'S  "ANABASIS" 


A 

1.  Here  Cyrus  had  a  palace, 
and  an  extensive  park  full  of 
wild  beasts  which  he  was  ac- 
customed to  hunt  on  horseback 
whenever  he  wished  to  give 
himself  and  his  horses  exer- 
cise. 

2.  Through  the  middle  of 
this  park  runs  the  river  Mean- 
der, but  the  head  of  it  rises 
in  the  palace ;  it  runs  also 
through  the  city  of  Celaenae. 

3.  Cyrus  reviewed  in  the 
plain,  both  his  Greeks  and  Bar- 
barian forces;  ordering  the 
Greeks  to  dispose  themselves 
according  to  their  custom,  and 
stand  in  order  of  battle,  and 
that  each  of  the  commanders 
should  draw  up  his  own  men. 

4.  Some  wished  that  they 
might  be  taken,  as  having  acted 
perfidiously ;  while  others  pitied 
their  fate,  if  they  should  be 
caught. 

5.  The  Greeks,  even  such  as 
had  been  previously  disinclined 
to  the  expedition,  when  they 
heard  of  the  noble  conduct  of 
Cyrus,  accompanied  him  with 
greater  pleasure  and  alacrity. 


B 

1.  Here  the  palace  of  Cyrus 
stood,  and  an  extensive  park 
full  of  wild  beasts,  which  Cy- 
rus hunted  on  horseback, 
whenever  he  had  a  mind  to  ex- 
ercise himself  and  his  horses. 

2.  Through  the  middle  of 
this  park  flows  the  river  Mean- 
der; its  springs  issue  from  the 
palace  itself;  and  it  runs  also 
through  the  city  of  Celaenae. 

3.  Cyrus  reviewed  his 
troops,  as  well  Greeks  as  Bar- 
barians, in  the  plain.  He  or- 
dered the  Greeks  to  be  mar- 
shaled, and  to  take  their  places, 
as  they  were  accustomed  to  do 
for  battle,  each  captain  arrang- 
ing his  own  men. 

4.  Some  wished  that,  hav- 
ing acted  perfidiously,  they 
might  be  taken ;  others  pitied 
them,  if  they  should  fall  into 
his  hands. 

5.  The  Greeks,  if  any  be- 
fore showed  a  backwardness  to 
the  enterprise,  seeing  this  in- 
stance of  Cyrus's  virtue,  fol- 
lowed him  with  greater  pleas- 
ure and  cheerfulness. 


The  Quality  of  Beauty        251 


6.  He  also  called  Clearchus 
to  the  council,  as  a  man  whom 
both  he  and  the  rest  consid- 
ered to  be  of  the  greatest  dig- 
nity among  the  Greeks. 

7.  I  have  solicited  your  at- 
tendance, my  friends,  in  order 
that,  on  consulting  with  you,  I 
may  do,  with  regard  to  Oron- 
tas  here  before  you,  whatever 
may  be  thought  just  before 
gods  and  men. 

8.  The  enemy's  numbers  are 
great,  and  they  make  their  on- 
set with  a  loud  shout;  but  if 
you  are  firm  against  this,  I  feel 
ashamed  to  think  what  sort  of 
men,  in  other  respects,  you  will 
find  those  in  the  country  to  be. 

FROM  PLATO'S 
A 

1.  Not  much  time  will  be 
gained,  O  Athenians,  in  return 
for  the  evil  name  which  you 
will  get  from  the  detractors  of 
the  city,  who  will  say  that  you 
killed  Socrates,  a  wise  man. 

2.  But  neither  did  I  then 
think  that  I  ought,  for  the  sake 
of  avoiding  danger,  to  do  any- 
thing unworthy  of  a  freeman, 
nor  do  I  now  repent  of  having 
so  defended  myself;  but  I 
should  much  rather  choose  to 
die,  having  so  defended  myself, 
than  to  live  in  that  way. 


B 

6.  Clearchus  he  called  in  to 
assist  at  the  council,  as  that 
officer  appeared  both  to  him- 
self and  to  the  rest,  to  be  held 
most  in  honor  among  the 
Greeks. 

7.  Friends !  I  have  called 
you  hither  to  the  end  that  I 
may  consider  with  you  what  is 
most  just  both  in  the  sight  of 
gods  and  men,  and  accordingly 
proceed  against  this  criminal 
Orontas, 

8.  Their  numbers  are  great, 
and  they  come  on  with  mighty 
shouts,  which  if  you  can  un- 
derstand, for  the  rest,  I  am  al- 
most ashamed  to  think  what 
kind  of  men  you  will  find  our 
country  produces. 


"  APOLOGIA  " 
B 

1.  For  the  sake  of  no  long 
space  of  time,  O  Athenians, 
you  will  incur  the  character 
and  reproach  at  the  hands  of 
those  who  wish  to  defame  the 
city,  of  having  put  that  wise 
man,  Socrates,  to  death. 

2.  I  thought  at  the  time  that 
I  ought  not  to  do  anything 
common  or  mean  when  in  dan- 
ger: nor  do  I  now  repent  of 
the  manner  of  my  defence,  and 
I  would  rather  die  having 
spoken  after  my  manner,  than 
speak  in  your  manner  and 
live. 


252 


Sentences 


3.  But  this  is  not  difficult, 
O  Athenians,  to  escape  death, 
but  it  is  much  more  difficult 
to  avoid  depravity,  for  it  runs 
swifter  than  death. 

4.  And  now  I  depart  hence 
condemned  by  you  to  suffer 
the  penalty  of  death,  and  they 
go  their  ways  condemned  by 
the  truth  to  suffer  the  penalty 
of  villainy  and  wrong;  and  I 
must  abide  by  my  award — let 
them  abide  by  theirs. 

5.  For  you  have  done  this, 
thinking  you  should  be  freed 
from  the  necessity  of  giving  an 
account  of  your  life.  The  very 
contrary,  however,  as  I  affirm, 
will  happen  to  you. 

6.  If  you  think  that  by  kill- 
ing men  you  can  prevent  some 
one  from  censuring  your  evil 
lives,  you  are  mistaken ;  that  is 
not  a  way  of  escape  which  is 
either  possible  or  honourable; 
the  easiest  and  the  noblest  way 
is  not  to  be  disabling  others, 
but  to  be  improving  yourselves. 


7.  And  if  it  is  a  privation  of 
all  sensation,  as  it  were  a  sleep 
in  which  the  sleeper  has  no 
dream,  death  would  be  a  won- 
derful gain. 


B 

3.  The  difficulty,  my  friends, 
is  not  in  avoiding  death,  but 
in  avoiding  unrighteousness ; 
for  that  runs  faster  than  death. 

4.  And  now  I  depart,  con- 
demned by  you  to  death;  but 
they  condemned  by  truth,  as 
guilty  of  iniquity  and  injus- 
tice: and  I  abide  by  my  sen- 
tence and  so  do  they. 


5.  Me  you  have  killed  be- 
cause you  wanted  to  escape  the 
accuser,  and  not  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  your  lives.  But  that 
will  not  be  as  you  suppose :  far 
otherwise. 

6.  For  if  you  think  that  by 
putting  men  to  death  you  will 
restrain  anyone  from  upbraid- 
ing you  because  you  do  not  live 
well,  you  are  much  mistaken ; 
for  this  method  of  escape  is  nei- 
ther possible  nor  honourable, 
but  that  other  is  most  honour- 
able and  most  easy,  not  to  put 
a  check  upon  others,  but  for  a 
man  to  take  heed  to  himself, 
how  he  may  be  most  perfect. 

7.  Now  if  you  suppose  that 
there  is  no  consciousness,  but  a 
sleep  like  the  sleep  of  him  who 
is  undisturbed  even  by  the 
sight  of  dreams,  death  will  be 
an  unspeakable  gain. 


The  Quality  of  Beauty       253^ 


8.  Now  if  death  is  like  this, 
I  say  that  to  die  is  gain;  for 
eternity  is  then  only  a  single 
night. 

9.  At  what  price,  my  judges, 
would  not  anyone  estimate  the 
opportunity  of  questioning  him 
who  led  that  mighty  army 
against  Troy,  or  Ulysses,  or 
Sisyphus,  or  ten  thousand 
others,  whom  one  might  men- 
tion, both  men  and  women? 
with  whom  to  converse  and  as- 
sociate, and  to  question  them, 
would  be  an  inconceivable  hap- 
piness. 

10.  Surely  for  that  the 
judges  there  do  not  condemn 
to  death ;  for  in  other  respects 
those  who  live  there  are  more 
happy  than  those  that  are  here, 
and  are  henceforth  immortal, 
if  at  least  what  is  said  be  true. 

11.  I  see  clearly  that  to  die 
and  be  released  was  better  for 
me;  and  therefore  the  oracle 
gave  no  sign.  For  which  rea- 
son, also,  I  am  not  angry  with 
my  condemners,  or  with  my 
accusers ;  they  have  done  me 
no  harm,  although  they  did  not 
mean  to  do  me  any  good ;  and 
for  this  reason  I  may  gently 
blame  them. 


B 

8.  If,  therefore,  death  is  a 
thing  of  this  kind,  I  say  it  is 
a  gain ;  for  thus  all  futurity  ap- 
pears to  be  nothing  more  than 
one  night. 

9.  What  would  not  a  man 
give,  O  judges,  to  be  able  to 
examine  the  leader  of  the  great 
Trojan  expedition ;  or  Odys- 
seus or  Sisyphus,  or  number- 
less other  men  and  women  too ! 
What  infinite  delight  would 
there  be  in  conversing  with 
them  and  asking  them  ques- 
tions ! 


10.  In  another  world  they 
do  not  put  a  man  to  death  for 
asking  questions ;  assuredly 
not.  For  besides  being  happier 
in  that  world  than  this,  they 
will  be  immortal,  if  what  is 
said  is  true. 

11.  But  this  is  clear  to  me, 
that  now  to  die,  and  be  freed 
from  my  cares,  is  better  for 
me.  On  this  account  the  warn- 
ing in  no  way  turned  me  aside ; 
and  I  bear  no  resentment  to- 
wards those  who  condemned 
me,  or  against  my  accusers. 
Although  they  did  not  con- 
demn and  accuse  me  with  this 
intention,  but  thinking  to  in- 
jure me :  in  this  they  deserve  to 
be  blamed. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  VOCABULARY 

1.  We  have  now  come  to  the  fourth  element  of  style, 
words.  Some  words  which  we  see  and  hear  frequently 
are  not  used  at  all  by  reputable  writers;  others  are 
used  incorrectly  by  many  persons.  In  our  choice  and 
use  of  words  we  must  be  governed  primarily  by  good 
use.  Many  examples  of  misuse  will  be  considered  in 
the  later  chapters  of  this  book.  If  the  student  is  in 
doubt  in  regard  to  a  word,  he  should  turn  at  once  to 
the  lists  in  Chapters  24  and  25,  or  to  a  dictionary,  and 
find  out  whether  the  word  is  permissible  and  what  is  its 
meaning.  We  shall  consider  in  this  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing chapters  some  questions  about  the  use  of  words 
which  are  not  settled  by  the  dictionaries.  How  can 
the  student  become  acquainted  with  a  large  number 
of  words?  What  are  the  particular  values  of  different 
kinds  of  words?  What  kinds  of  words  are  to  be 
avoided  ? 

2.  All  that  the  student  has  learned  of  composition,  of 
the  arrangement  of  ideas  in  themes,  paragraphs,  and 
sentences,  will  be  useless  unless  he  acquires  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  a  good  many  words.  Some  of  our 
latest  dictionaries  contain  over  two  hundred  thousand 

254 


The  Vocabulary  255 

words.  These  have  been  derived  in  large  part  from 
Anglo-Saxon,  in  large  part  from  Latin  through 
French,  and  in  smaller  parts  from  nearly  all  the  lan- 
guages of  the  earth.  There  are  words  enough  for 
what  we  want  to  say.  No  one  person,  in  fact,  ever  uses 
more  than  a  small  part  of  this  immense  total.  Even 
Shakespeare  used  only  twenty-three  thousand,  and 
probably  many  people  ^manage  to  do  a  little  writing  and 
reading  and  a  good  deal  of  talking  without  being  sure 
of  more  than  a  thousand.  If,  however,  the  student  is 
going  to  read  much  and  think  much,  and  if  he  is  going 
to  write  at  all,  he  needs  many  more  than  a  thousand 
words.  He  needs  to  know  the  meaning  and  value  of 
as  many  as  possible.  How  is  he  to  set  about  this  ?  He 
should  begin  by  taking  the  right  attitude.  He  should 
realize  that  we  live  in  a  world  of  words  as  well  as  a 
world  of  things,  and  that  everything  in  this  world  of 
men  and  women,  fields  and  houses,  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings, facts  and  relations,  has  its  word.  Words  are  for 
study,  interest,  acquaintance,  and  above  all,  for  use. 
3'  There  are  several  practical  ways  for  increasing  the 
extent  and  familiarity  of  your  acquaintance  with  words 
and  your  ability  to  use  them  effectively. 
4.  First:  Keep  on  the  lookout  for  new  words.  If 
you  see  or  hear  one  which  you  understand  but  are  not 
in  the  habit  of  using,  go  out  of  your  way  to  use  it  until 
it  becomes  familiar.  If  you  see  or  hear  one  which  you 
do  not  understand,  look  it  up  in  the  dictionary  at  once, 
and  afterward  use  it  if  possible.  Never  let  a  strange 
or  half -understood  word  get  by  you. 


256   .  Words 


5.  Second :  Read  as  much  as  possible  in  good  English 
authors,  in  history,  science,  travels,  and  biography,  as 
well  as  fiction.  Read  with  your  eyes  open  not  only 
for  new  words  but  also  for  old  ones,  and  note  the  dif- 
ferent meanings  that  a  word  attaches  to  itself.  In  the 
same  way,  notice  the  words  that  you  hear  in  sermons, 
lectures,  or  conversation,  in  order  that  you  may  become 
familiar  with  the  different  uses  and  effects  of  many 
words. 

6.  Third:  In  talking  and  writing,  discriminate  care- 
fully in  your  choice  of  words.  Make  sure  you  have 
just  the  right  word  for  what  you  want  to  say.  When 
you  lack  a  word,  hunt  for  it  until  you  find  it.  The 
study  of  synonyms,  words  similar  but  not  identical  in 
meaning,  will  be  an  aid  in  this  work  of  discrimination. 
Think  of  all  the  words  which  come  somewhere  near 
answering  your  purpose.  Building,  house,  edifice, 
mansion,  residence,  cottage,  domicile,  home — what 
differences  are  there  in  meaning,  and  which  word  do 
you  want?  Here  again  you  will  need  to  study  a  dic- 
tionary and,  if  possible,  a  book  of  synonyms. 

7-  Fourth:  Distinguish  between  general  and  specific 
words.  A  slight  study  of  synonyms  will  show  that 
some  words  have  more  general  meanings  than  others. 
"Building  "  is  a  general  word,  for  there  are  cathedrals, 
brick  blocks,  city  halls,  churches,  houses,  and  many 
other  kinds  of  buildings.  "  House  "  is  a  less  general 
and  more  specific  word  than  "  building '' ;  "  cottage  " 
is  still  less  general  and  more  specific.  "  A  vine-covered 
cottage  "  is  a  still  more  specific  term.     General  and 


The  Vocabulary  257 

specific  words  both  have  their  advantages.  If  you 
are  dealing  with  general  ideas,  you  need  general  words. 
"  Patriotism,  love,  education,  expansion,  duty,  good, 
brave  "  are  general  words  which  we  use  frequently. 
If,  however,  you  are  dealing  with  specific  ideas  you 
must  use  specific  words.  When  some  one  speaks  of  a 
deed  of  patriotism,  a  question  of  duty,  a  good  sermon, 
he  gives  us  very  little  exact  information  about  the  deed, 
the  question,  or  sermon.  The  deed  may  have  been 
going  to  a  caucus ;  the  question,  whether  to  learn  a  les- 
son or  not;  the  sermon,  brief  and  caustic.  A  few  spe- 
cific words  supply  us  with  precise  ideas.  A  general 
word  presents  a  large  class  of  individual  ideas  under 
one  term;  a  specific  word  presents  one  idea  precisely 
and  definitely.  Therefore,  for  precision  in  expression, 
use  as  many  specific  words  as  possible. 

8.  When  we  say  that  specific  words  are  more  exact 
and  definite  than  general  words,  we  mean  that  they 
present  more  exact  and  definite  images  to  the  mind  of 
the  reader.  "  Cottage  "  gives  a  more  definite  mental 
picture  than  "  building";  "  crash  "  gives  a  more  defi- 
nite image  than  "  sound."  Usually,  then,  a  specific 
word  is  not  only  more  exact  in  its  meaning  than  a 
general  word,  it  is  also  more  forcible  in  its  impression. 
If  you  wish  to  make  your  readers  see  and  feel  vividly 
what  you  have  seen  and  felt,  you  will  use  many  spe- 
cific words. 

9.  The  purpose  of  these  suggestions  and  of  the  exer- 
cises that  follow  is  to  enlarge  the  student's  knowledge 
of  words  and  their  meanings,  and  to  enable  him  to  use 

17 


258  Words 


them  with  precision  and  vividness.  For  every  object 
or  idea  there  should  come  to  his  mind  a  number  of 
words,  his  knowledge  of  which  should  be  so  thorough 
that  he  can  instantly  choose  the  one  that  will  express 
his  thought  most  clearly  and  forcibly.  This  is  the 
ideal  which  should  guide  his  study  of  words. 

EXERCISES 


1.  In  your  reading  during  the  week,  note  five  words 
that  are  new  to  you  or  used  with  meanings  new  to 
you.  Words  in  general  use  are  to  be  selected,  and  not 
technical  words  confined  in  their  use  to  some  trade, 
game,  or  science.  These  lists  are  to  be  handed  to  the 
teacher  and  will  be  made  the  basis  of  especial  study  and 
discussion. 

2.  In  the  first  two  selections  given  in  Chapter  6,  from 
Burke  and  Darwin,  select  all  the  words  that  seem  to 
you  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  and  all  of  Latin  origin. 
What  differences  do  you  note  in  the  uses  of  these  two 
classes  of  words?  What  differences  in  the  ratio  of  the 
two  classes  in  the  two  authors?  Find  Anglo-Saxon 
synonyms  for  as  many  of  the  Latin  words  as  possible. 
3-  From  your  reading  select  a  paragraph  which  con- 
tains a  large  number  of  Anglo-Saxon  words;  one  con- 
taining a  large  number  of  words  derived  from  the 
Latin.  What  differences  in  effect  do  you  notice  that 
seem  due  to  this  difference  in  the  choice  of  words? 


The  Vocabulary  259 

4.  In  the  two  paragraphs  from  Burke  and  Darwin 
examined  under  Exercise  2,  note  the  general  and  the 
specific  words.  What  differences  in  the  uses  of  these 
two  classes  of  words?  In  the  usage  of  the  two  au- 
thors? Substitute  specific  words  for  the  general. 
What  difference  in  the  effect  produced  ? 

The  two  paragraphs  in  Exercise  3  may  be  treated 
to  a  similar  examination. 

5.  What  is  the  exact  meaning  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing words  ?  What  different  meanings  has  each  ?  Use 
a  word  in  a  sentence  so  as  to  illustrate  its  principal 
meaning.  These  words  have  all  been  used  on  the  pre- 
ceding pages  of  this  book,  in  the  text  or  the  selections 
in  the  exercises.     Their  history,  derivation,  use,  and 

value  may  well  be  studied  further.  .  Jm/VZ-^-v 

1.  akimbo.  20.  foment.  I  K^iy^^^"^^ 

2.  ambiguous.  21.  function.  ^x/t/^''''^^^ 

3.  Anabaptists.  2.2.  humanize. 

4.  analogy.  23.  husbandman. 

5.  apotheosize.  24.  incongruity. 

6.  apparition.  25.  incubation. 

7.  ascetic.  26.  indefatigable. 

8.  august.  27.  isolated. 

9.  austere.  28.  juridicial. 

ID.  chine.  29.  knights  of  the  shire. 

11.  cleft.  30.  lucidity. 

12.  complacency.  31.  malignity. 

13.  comprehensiveness.  32.  martyrology. 

14.  consummate.  ZZ-  metamorphosis. 

15.  cranching.  34.  Michaelmas. 

16.  detriment.  35.  misanthropy. 

17.  environs.  z^-  nitrifaction. 

18.  exigency.  ZT-  opulence. 

19.  focus.  38.  pensiveness. 


26o 


Words 


39.  peremptory. 

40.  prelatical, 

41.  portcullis. 

42.  puckish. 

43.  rhapsody. 

44.  rococo. 

45.  rudiments. 

46.  scurrility. 

47.  sensuous. 

48.  seraphim. 


49.  spontaneity. 

50.  tentative. 

51.  translucent. 

52.  troubadour. 

53.  unpremeditated. 

54.  unsullied. 

55.  vicissitudes. 

56.  voluble. 

57.  weltering. 

58.  whimsy. 


6.  Hand  in  a  list  of  four  words  of  nearly  the  same 
meaning  as  each  of  the  following.  Nouns: — ability, 
audience,  companion,  character,  disaster,  name,  person, 
porch,  series.  Adjectives: — brave,  foolish,  new,  ob- 
vious, pleasant,  rich,  warm.  Verbs: — advise,  begin, 
command,  disgust,  eat,  forsake,  happen,  help,  pardon, 
reside,  run. 

These  lists  are  for  further  comparison  and  discrim- 
ination. 

7.^  Take  one  of  the  groups  of  synonyms  made  in  Ex- 
ercise 6,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  dictionary  or  book  of 
synonyms  discriminate  carefully  between  the  five 
words.     Make  a  report,  following  this  outline. 

1.  What  general  meaning,  if  any,  is  applicable  to  all 
five? 

2.  Which  is  the  most  general  of  all  the  words  ?    Will 
its  meaning  include  all  the  others? 

3.  What  is  the  special  meaning  of  each,  a  meaning 
that  cannot  be  applied  to  any  of  the  others  ? 

4.  Write  a  sentence  illustrating  the  meaning  of  each, 
or  one  sentence   illustrating  the   meanings   of   all   five. 

1  This  exercise  is  based  on  §§  62,  63,  "  Constructive  Rhetoric," 
E.  E.  Hale,  Jr. 


The  Vocabulary  261 

Each  word  should  be  used  in  such  a  way  that  none  of 
the  others  can  be  substituted  for  it. 

In  this  exercise  all  the  meanings  for  each  word  are 
not  to  be  considered,  but  only  the  synonymous  ones, 
those  which  are  similar  for  the  five  words.  The  fol- 
lowing report  may  serve  for  an  example. 

Synonyms.    Acquaintance,  associate,  companion, 
comrade,  friend. 

1.  All  these  words  may  denote  persons  known  to  one  and  on 
some  terms  of  intercourse  with  one.  In  this  sense  they  are  syno- 
nyms. Companion  may  also  be  applied  to  things;  and  acquain- 
tance may  denote  "all  one's  acquaintances"  or  "the  state  of 
being  acquainted  "  as  well  as  a  person. 

2.  Acquaintance  is  the  most  general  word.  Associates,  com- 
•rades,  companions,  and  friends  must  all  be  acquaintances,  though 
they  are  something  more  than  acquaintances. 

3.  Acquaintance  means  a  person  known  to  one  but  not  very 
well  known  or  on  terms  of  intimacy. 

Associate  is  usually  a  person  connected  with  one  in  some  busi- 
ness or  other  undertaking. 

Comrade  is  a  person  associated  with  one  in  a  friendly  way. 

Companion  may  imply  a  still  greater  degree  of  familiarity, 
though  it  is  often  quite  synonymous  with  comrade.  It  may  mean 
a  habitual  comrade,  one  who  shares  one's  lot. 

Friend  denotes  a  person  attached  to  one  on  terms  of  great  in- 
timacy. The  intimacy  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of  the  other 
words,  and  is  not  limited  by  time  or  space. 

4.  For  several  years  he  was  only  an  acquaintance,  but  later  he 
was  my  associate  on  the  Board  of  Selectmen  and  my  comrade  in 
the  Civil  War,  then  during  our  residence  in  Brunswick  we  were 
constant  companions,  and  now,  though  I  have  not  seen  him  for 
years,  we  are  still  close  friends. 

8.     The  following  passages  are  taken  from  a  short 
composition  on  "  Sir  Walter  Scott."     Suggest  another 


262  Words 

word  for  each  of  those  in  italics.  The  words  substi- 
tuted may  be  synonyms,  or  more  specific  terms,  or 
words  with  meanings  that  seem  to  you  more  appropri- 
ate than  those  given. 

The  grand  sacrifice  in  the  life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  .  .  . 
his  life  of  luxury  and  ease  ...  his  whole-souled  gen- 
erosity ...  his  interesting  and  admirable  character  .  .  . 
he  had  a  strong  memory  for  whatever  pleased  him  .  .  . 
he  dashed  off  with  wonderful  rapidity  the  Waverley  Nov- 
els. .  .  .  The  humiliation  of  this  failure  was  terrible  to 
Scott,  who  was  very  highstrung,  but  he  met  the  trial  with 
strength  and  dignity  .  .  .  that  course  of  untiring  indus- 
try. ...  It  was  a  tremendous  exertion  ...  his  invaluable 
works  ...  a  striking  example  of  spirit  and  generosity. 

9*  Study  the  effect  of  specific  words  in  these  stanzas 
from  Tennyson's  "  The  Day-Dream."  What  general 
impressions  do  you  receive  from  reading  the  stanzas? 
How  do  the  various  specific  words  aid  in  producing  this 
effect  ?  Note  particularly  the  verbs  and  the  participles. 
Substitute  more  general  words  for  these ;  what  change 
in  the  effect? 

A  touch,  a  kiss !  the  charm  was  snapt. 

There  rose  a  noise  of  striking  clocks, 
And  feet  that  ran,  and  doors  that  clapt, 

And  barking  dogs,  and  crowing  cocks ; 
A  fuller  light  illumined  all, 

A  breeze  thro'  all  the  garden  swept, 
A  sudden  hubbub  shook  the  hall, 

And  sixty  feet  the  fountain  leapt. 

The  hedge  broke  in,  the  banner  blew. 
The  butler  drank,  the  steward  scrawl'd. 

The  fire  shot  up,  the  martin  flew, 

The  parrot  scream'd,  the  peacock  squall'd. 


The  Vocabulary  263 

The  maid  and  page  renewed  their  strife, 
The  palace  bang'd  and  buzz'd  and  clackt, 

And  all  the  long-pent  stream  of  life 
Dash'd  downward  in  a  cataract. 

Examine  the  following  verses  from  the  same  poem  and 
note  the  general  words.  Why  are  they  used  here 
rather  than  more  specific  words?  What  effects  are 
gained  ?  Substitute  specific  words,  and  how  are  the  ef- 
fects changed? 

You  shake  your  head.     A  random  string 

Your  finer  female  sense  offends. 
Well — were  it  not  a  pleasant  thing 

To  fall  asleep  with  all  one's  friends ; 
To  pass  with  all  our  social  ties 

To  silence  from  the  paths  of  men ; 
And  every  hundred  years  to  rise 

And  learn  the  world,  and  sleep  again ; 
To  sleep  thro'  terms  of  mighty  wars, 

And  wake  on  science  grown  to  more, 
On  secrets  of  the  brain,  the  stars, 

As  wild  as  aught  of  fairy  lore ; 
And  all  that  else  the  years  will  show. 

The  Poet-forms  of  stronger  hours. 
The  vast  Republics  that  may  grow. 

The  Federations  and  the  Powers; 
Titanic  forces  taking  birth 

In  divers  seasons,  divers  climes; 
For  we  are  Ancients  of  the  earth. 

And  in  the  morning  of  the  times. 


CHAPTER  XX 
FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.    SUGGESTIVE  WORDS 

1.  The  effect  of  a  word  on  the  reader  is  not  limited  by 
its  power  to  convey  one  meaning.  A  word  may  present 
pictures  to  the  mind  or  stir  the  senses  or  arouse  various 
feelings.  It  may  please  us  by  its  sound  in  one  place  and 
annoy  us  in  another.  It  may  be  used  literally,  as  the 
"  stonewall "  in  the  pasture;  or  figuratively,  as  General 
"  Stonewall "  Jackson.  Words  may  be  used  ironically, 
with  a  meaning  just  opposite  to  the  literal  one,  as  when 
we  call  a  child  who  has  meddled  with  the  jam,  a 
"  pretty  picture."  The  same  word  may  arouse  certain 
associations  in  one  person,  and  very  different  ones  in 
another;  as  the  words  "country,"  "government," 
"  ruler,"  to  people  of  different  nations.  It  may  seem 
pleasing  or  disagreeable,  prosaic  or  poetical,  common- 
place or  beautiful,  in  different  places  or  to  different 
persons.  At  best,  words  cannot  express  to  the  reader 
all  the  complexity  of  the  thought  and  feeling  of  the 
writer,  but  in  the  hands  of  the  masters  the  impressions 
they  do  produce  are  varied  and  multiplied  and  vivified 
to  an  almost  infinite  degree. 

2.  Often  an  idea  can  be  presented  distinctly  and  viv- 

264 


Figures  of  Speech  265 

idly  by  means  of  tropes — words  turned  from  their  lit- 
eral meaning  and  employed  in  a  figurative  sense.  The 
language  is  full  of  tropes.  When  we  speak  of  a  strik- 
ing thought,  a  soft  answer,  or  a  sharp  man,  we  are 
using  "  striking,"  "  soft,"  and  "  sharp "  in  tropical 
senses.  So  we  use  many  words  daily  in  both  their  lit- 
eral and  figurative  meanings;  as  a  hot  fire  and  a  hot 
temper,  cold  weather  and  a  cold  manner.  Many  of 
these  figures  are  so  common  that  no  one  is  conscious 
of  departing  from  plain,  matter-of-fact  speech  in  em- 
ploying them.  We  are  now  more  concerned  with  other 
figures  which  we  use  frequently  but  with  a  conscious- 
ness that  we  are  not  using  plain  language. 
3»  Three  of  these  may  be  called  figures  of  resem- 
blance, simile,  metaphor,  personification.  A.  simile 
likens  one  thing  to  another;  a  metaphor  identifies  one 
with  another ;  personification  is  a  kind  of  metaphor  in 
which  inanimate  objects  are  regarded  as  alive.  When 
you  say  of  a  young  woman,  "  Her  will  is  like  iron," 
you  use  a  simile;  when  you  say,  "  She  is  a  butterfly," 
you  use  a  metaphor ;  when  you  say,  "  The  moon  veils 
her  face  in  a  cloud,"  you  employ  personification,  mak- 
ing a  woman  out  of  the  moon.  In  each  case  you  bring 
some  characteristic  or  action  vividly  before  your 
hearer.  The  words  "  like  iron  "  in  their  tropical  appli- 
cation give  a  more  vivid  image  than  would  the  words 
"  resolute,  strong " ;  "a  butterfly  "  is  similarly  more 
vivid  than  "  gay,  frivolous  " ;  and  "  the  moon  veils  her 
face  "  than  "  a  cloud  passes  over  the  moon."  These 
are  simple  examples  of  these  figures.     They  may  be 


2  66  Words 

very  ingenious,  attractive,  and  suggestive ,  as  in 
Wordsworth's  description  of  a  daisy: 

Yet  like  a  star,  with  gHttering  crest, 

Self-poised  in  air  thou  seem'st  to  rest; — (Simile,) 

A  silver  shield  with  boss  of  gold. 
That  spreads  itself,  some  faery  bold 

In  fight  to  cover !  (Metaphor.) 

A  nun  demure  of  lowly  port ; 

Or  sprightly  maiden,  of  Love's  court, 

In  thy  simplicity  the  sport 

Of  all  temptations;  (Personification,) 

4.  Another  class  of  figures  is  based  on  association 
rather  than  resemblance.  In  synecdoche  a  part  is  put 
for  the  whole  or  an  individual  for  the  class;  as  "  sail " 
for  ship,  or  "  some  village  Hampden  "  for  some  village 
patriot.  In  metonymy  something  is  designated  by  an 
accompaniment,  a  cause,  an  effect,  a  sign ;  as  "  the  ket- 
tle boils  "  for  the  water  in  the  kettle,  or  "  the  bench  " 
for  the  judges  on  the  bench,  or  "  the  sun  scorches  " 
for  the  heat  of  the  sun.  In  either  figure  vividness  is 
gained  in  the  same  way ;  some  part,  quality,  or  circum- 
stance associated  with  the  object  is  singled  out,  and  at- 
tention is  centered  on  that. 

5-  Some  of  the  many  other  figures  of  speech  noted 
by  rhetoricians  have  already  been  mentioned.  Excla- 
mation, hyperbole  (exaggeration),  apostrophe  (ad- 
dress to  an  absent  person)  are  used  only  in  cases  of 
strong  emotion.  Interrogation  (an  affirmation  in  the 
form  of  a  question),  climax,  irony  (the  words  convey- 


Figures  of  Speech  267 

ing  a  meaning  opposite  to  their  literal  one),  and 
antithesis  are  more  common  methods  of  expression. 
Antithesis — the  setting  over  against  each  other  of  con- 
trasted ideas  by  means  of  contrasted  words — is  in- 
deed a  method  open  to  very  v^ide  application*  A  large 
part  of  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Bos  well's  Johnson  is  a 
development  of  the  antithesis  that  Bos  well  was  a  fool, 
but  his  book  wise.  Similarly  a  paragraph  may  be  an- 
tithetical in  structure,  the  first  half  contrasting  with 
the  second ;  or  a  sentence  may  form  an  antithesis  with 
another  sentence.  Antithesis  within  a  sentence  in- 
volves specific  contrast  between  words  or  phrases ;  as — 
"  works  not  words,"  "  forewarned,  forearmed  " ;  or  the 
description  of  Goldsmith : 

Who  wrote  like  an  angel,  but  talked  like  poor  Poll. 

6.  This  classification  of  figures  would  be  greatly  en- 
larged if  it  were  to  include  all  varieties  of  ingenious, 
emphatic,  emotional,  or  imaginative  uses  of  words.  In 
theme-writing  the  student  needs  to  pay  attention  to 
only  a  few — antithesis,  metonymy,  simile,  personifica- 
tion, metaphor.  These  figures,  as  we  have  seen,  give 
vividness  to  style,  but  a  deliberate  effort  to  be  vivid 
may  result  in  failure.  Some  persons  naturally  find 
words  that  create  pictures,  and  so  write  vividly  and 
picturesquely ;  others  succeed  in  doing  this  only  under 
the  stir  of  considerable  emotion.  Some  of  the  best 
prose  is  plain  and  unfigurative.  In  any  case,  excessive 
use  of  figures  is  to  be  avoided,  since  it  gives  an  effect 
of    over-ornamentation    and    showiness.    In   general. 


2  68  Words 

figures  should  never  be  introduced  merely  for  the  sake 
of  ornamenting  the  style,  but  in  order  to  make  the 
ideas  clear  and  forcible.  Trite  well-worn  figures,  sim- 
iles and  metaphors  that  one  has  read  and  admired — 
"  life  is  like  a  river,"  "  education  is  a  ladder  " — may 
well  be  avoided.  Care  must  also  be  taken  not  to  con- 
fuse figurative  and  literal  expressions,  and  not  to  use  a 
figure  that  will  not  be  readily  understood  by  the  reader. 
The  essential  thing  is  to  express  the  thought  precisely 
by  words;  if  we  can  illuminate  it  by  figures,  so  much 
the  better.  It  is  also  essential  to  remember  that  the 
coherent  order  is  always  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, the  simple  to  the  complex,  the  fact  to  the  fancy, 
the  literal  to  the  figurative. 

7.  A  metaphor  is  usually  more  vivid  than  a  simile. 
Call  the  daisy  "  a  nun  demure,"  and  you  surprise  the 
fancy  with  an  identification;  but  if  you  describe  the 
flower  as  quiet  and  demure  like  a  nun,  you  permit  the 
fancy  to  linger  over  a  partial  resemblance.  Metaphors 
thus  require  more  of  the  imagination  than  similes,  con- 
sequently they  cannot  be  used  when  the  resemblance  is 
slight  or  partial,  or  when  there  is  any  danger  that  it 
will  not  be  quickly  perceived  by  the  reader.  Similes 
and  metaphors  should  not  be  too  obvious  or  matter-of- 
fact  if  they  are  to  be  forcible ;  and  they  should  not  be 
too  ingenious  or  far-fetched  if  they  are  to  be  illumina- 
ting. Further,  they  need  not  be  carried  into  details; 
it  is  enough  if  they  suggest  some  point  of  resemblance. 
This  is  true  even  of  elaborate  figures,  like  the  famous 
one  of  Bacon : 


Figures  of  Speech  269 

This  same  Truth  is  a  naked  and  open  dayHght,  that  doth 
not  show  the  masks  and  mummeries  and  triumphs  of  the 
world  half  so  stately  and  daintily  as  candle-lights. 

Although  the  main  metaphor  is  enforced  by  several 
other  metaphors  and  tropes,  only  a  single  aspect  of 
truth  is  illustrated.  Finally,  especial  care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  mixed  figures.  Dr.  Johnson  ridiculed 
this  mixed  metaphor  in  Addison: 

I  bridle  in  my  struggling  Muse  with  pain 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  nobler  strain. 

The  following  are  ridiculous  because  of  mixed  meta- 
phors or  of  a  mixture  of  literal  and  figurative  lan- 
guage. 

As  the  saw  is  used  in  cutting  the  log  into  boards,  so  the 
plow  cuts  mother  earth  into  planks  of  sod. 

Capricious  October,  blowing  over  the  billowy  grasses 
with  a  little  taint  of  frost  in  his  breath,  has  left  his  tracks 
on  mound  and  gully,  so  that  his  roots  are  now  well 
quilted  in  the  downy  covering  of  his  own  leaves. 

The  key-note  of  the  room  is  the  natural  history  frieze. 

This  peculiar  brownish  color  of  the  paint  throws  a  halo 
of  picturesque  beauty  about  the  old-fashioned  building. 

This  street  is  much  built  up,  and  the  structures  hold 
close  communion  one  with  another. 

8.  So  far  we  have  been  considering  figures  of  speech 
as  adding  to  the  power  of  words  to  convey  ideas.  Even 
when  a  word  is  not  a  trope,  it  may  have  a  value  in 
addition  to  its  exact  meaning.     Almost  every  word 


270  Words 

both  identifies  a  certain  idea  and  suggests  other  ideas. 
The  suggestion  may  be  derived  from  the  very  sound  of 
the  words ;  as  in  Keats'  lines : 

Of  candied  apple,  quince,  and  plum,  and  gourd ; 
With  jellies  soother  than  the  creamy  curd. 
And  lucent  syrops,  tinct  with  cinnamon; 
Manna  and  dates,  in  argosy  transferred 
From  Fez;  and  spiced  dainties,  every  one, 
From  silken  Samarcand  to  cedar'd  Lebanon. 

In  addition  to  the  articles  and  places  identified,  a  cool 
deliciousness  is  suggested  by  the  combination  of 
sounds,  a  delectable  taste  far  beyond  that  which  we 
receive  from  a  mere  enumeration  of  eatables.  Words 
also  gain  great  suggestiveness  from  the  association  of 
ideas.  Some  of  the  deliciousness  of  Keats'  lines  comes 
from  the  suggestion  of  richness  and  rarity  associated 
with  the  proper  names.  America  is  the  name  of  this 
continent,  but  for  most  of  us  it  carries  suggestions  of 
home,  patriotism,  our  flag,  and  our  own  city.  For 
a  chance  visitor  to  our  shores  it  might,  on  the  contrary, 
suggest  heat,  mosquitoes,  crowded  trains,  and  Niagara 
Falls.  In  order  to  express  our  ideas,  then,  we  should 
endeavor  to  choose  words  that  will  have  the  same  sug- 
gestions for  our  readers  that  they  have  for  us.  The 
power  of  a  word  depends  on  what  it  suggests  no  less 
than  on  what  it  names.  An  object  or  act  is,  indeed, 
often  most  imaginatively  described,  not  by  an  elaborate 
figure,  but  by  words  which  both  in  their  usual  mean- 
ing and  in  their  suggestion  reproduce  our  ideas.  So 
Wordsworth,  after  many  fancies  about  the  daisy  ex- 


Figures  of  Speech  271 

pressed  in  similes  and  metaphors,  returns  at  last  to 
plain  speech: 

Bright  Flower!  for  by  that  name  at  last, 
When  all  my  reveries  are  past, 
I  call  thee,  and  to  that  cleave  fast, 
Sweet  silent  creature! 

These  are  plain  common  words.  Many  flowers  are 
sweet,  all  vegetables  are  silent,  all  things  are,  in  one 
meaning  of  the  word,  creatures;  yet  for  the  daisy  what 
words  could  be  so  true,  so  appropriate,  so  suggestive  ? 
Better  than  any  of  his  metaphors,  they  suggest  the 
ideas  Wordsworth  wished  to  suggest. 
9-  Figures  of  speech  are  merely  certain  methods  by 
which  words  may  be  made  to  carry  suggestions  beyond 
their  ordinary  sense.  Some,  like  antithesis  and  climax, 
relate  to  the  arrangement  of  words  so  as  to  express 
certain  relations  of  ideas.  Others,  like  simile  and  met- 
aphor, employ  words  to  suggest  qualities,  actions,  or 
ideas  quite  foreign  to  their  usual  senses.  Figures  are 
liable  to  be  used  to  excess,  or  to  be  confused,  or  to 
be  far-fetched;  but  when  used  with  imagination  they 
arouse  the  attention,  quicken  the  fancy,  vivify,  illumi- 
nate, and  beautify  style.  But  whether  we  employ  fig- 
ures or  not,  nearly  every  word  we  use  has  the  power  to 
suggest  varied  meanings,  to  create  many  pictures.  By 
this  power  both  the  chance  for  error  and  the  possible 
degree  of  success  in  conveying  our  thought  and  feeling 
to  another  are  greatly  enhanced.  The  use  of  words  be- 
comes a  difficult  and  varied  problem,  at  which  even  the 


272  Words 

masters,  whose  phrases  seem  so  admirable,  have  only 
partly  succeeded.  If  we  wish  to  appeal  solely  to  the 
intellect,  we  should  use  words  that  can  denote  ideas 
exactly;  but  if  we  wish  to  appeal  to  the  taste,  feelings, 
fancy,  and  imagination,  we  must  select  words  with  a 
nice  appreciation  of  their  power  to  create  many  images 
and  suggestions. 


EXERCISES 


1.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  figures  of  speech  to  be 
found  in  the  sentences  quoted  in  Chapter  18,  Exer- 
cise 2. 

2.  Select  and  name  the  various  figures  of  speech  to 
be  found  in  these  selections. 

.  .  .  These  are  deep  questions,  where  great  names  mili- 
tate against  each  other;  where  reason  is  perplexed;  and 
an  appeal  to  authorities  only  thickens  the  confusion :  for 
high  and  reverend  authorities  lift  up  their  heads  on  both 
sides;  and  there  is  no  sure  footing  in  the  middle.  This 
point  is  the  great 

"  Serbonian  bog, 
Betwixt  Damiata  and  Mount  Casius  old, 
Where  armies  whole  have  sunk." 

I  do  not  intend  to  be  overwhelmed  in  that  bog,  though  in 
such  respectable  company.  The  question  with  me  is,  not 
whether  you  have  a  right  to  render  your  people  miserable, 
but  whether  it  is  not  your  interest  to  make  them  happy. 
It  is  not  what  a  lawyer  tells  me  I  may  do,  but  what  hu- 
manity, reason  and  justice  tell  me  I  ought  to  do.     Is  a 


Figures  of  Speech  273 

politic  act  the  worse  for  being  a  generous  one  ?  Is  no  con- 
cession proper  but  that  which  is  made  from  your  want  of 
right  to  keep  what  you  grant  ?  Or  does  it  lessen  the  grace 
or  dignity  of  relaxing  in  the  exercise  of  an  odious  claim, 
because  you  have  your  evidence-room  full  of  titles  and 
your  magazines  stuffed  with  arms  to  enforce  them? 
What  signify  all  those  titles  and  all  those  arms  ?  Of  what 
avail  are  they,  when  the  reason  of  the  thing  tells  me  that 
the  assertion  of  my  title  is  the  loss  of  my  suit ;  and  that  I 
could  do  nothing  but  wound  myself  by  the  use  of  my  own 
weapons  ? 

Edmund  Burke  :  Speech  on  Conciliation. 

— I  think  there  is  one  habit, — I  said  to  our  company  a 
day  or  two  afterwards, — worse  than  that  of  punning.  It 
is  the  gradual  substitution  of  cant  or  slang  terms  for 
words  which  truly  characterize  their  objects.  I  have 
known  several  very  genteel  idiots  whose  whole  vocabu- 
lary had  deliquesced  into  some  half  dozen  expressions. 
All  things  fell  into  one  of  two  great  categories, — fast  or 
slozv.  Man's  chief  end  was  to  be  a  hrick.  When  the 
great  calamities  of  life  overtook  their  friends,  these  last 
were  spoken  of  as  a  good  deal  cut  up.  Nine  tenths  of  hu- 
man existence  were  summed  up  in  the  single  word,  hore. 
These  expressions  come  to  be  the  algebraic  symbols  of 
minds  which  have  grown  too  weak  or  indolent  to  discrimi- 
nate. They  are  the  blank  checks  of  intellectual  bank- 
ruptcy;— ^you  may  fill  them  up  with  what  idea  you  like; 
it  makes  no  difference,  for  there  are  no  funds  in  the 
treasury  upon  which  they  are  drawn.  Colleges  and  good- 
for-nothing  smoking-clubs  are  the  places  where  these  con- 
versational fungi  spring  up  most  luxuriantly.  Don't 
think  I  undervalue  the  proper  use  and  application  of  a 
cant  word  or  phrase.  It  adds  piquancy  to  conversation, 
as  a  mushroom  does  to  a  sauce.  But  it  is  no  better  than 
a  toadstool,  odious  to  the  sense  and  poisonous  to  the  in- 
tellect, when  it  spawns  itself  all  over  the  talk  of  men  and 
youths  capable  of  talking,  as  it  sometimes  does.  As  we 
hear  slang  phraseology,  it  is  commonly  the  dish-water 
18 


274 


Words 


from  the  washings  of  English  dandyism,  schoolboy  or 
full-grown,  wrung  out  of  a  three-volume  novel  which  had 
sopped  it  up,  or  decanted  from  the  pictured  urn  of  Mr. 
Verdant  Green,  and  diluted  to  suit  the  provincial  climate. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  :  The  Autocrat  of  the 
Breakfast  Table. 

3.  Analyze  the  words  in  the  following  passages  ^ — 
general  or  specific;  figures  of  speech;  suggestiveness. 
Which  passage  is  the  most  effective  ?    Why  ? 

**  In  large  bodies  the  "  In  all  the  despotisrns 
circulation  of  power  must  of  the  East  it  has  been  ob- 
be  less  vigorous  at  the  ex-  served  that  the  further  any 
tremities.  Nature  has  said  part  of  the  empire  is  re- 
it.  The  Turk  cannot  gov-  moved  from  the  capital  the 
ern  Egypt  and  Arabia  and  more  do  its  inhabitants  en- 
Kurdistan  as  he  governs  joy  some  sort  of  rights 
Thrace;  nor  has  he  the  and  privileges;  the  more 
same  dominion  in  Crimea  inefficacious  is  the  power 
and  Algiers  which  he  has  of  the  monarch;  and  the 
at  Brusa  and  Smyrna,  more  feeble  and  easily  de- 
Despotism  itself  is  obliged  cayed  is  the  organization 
to  truck  and  huckster,  of  the  government." 
The  Sultan  gets  such  Lord  Brougham  :  Inquiry 
obedience  as  he  can."  into  the  Colonial  Policy 
Burke  :  Speech  on  Concil-  of  the  European  Powers, 

iation. 

4-  Make  a  list  of  all  the  cases  of  metonymy,  antithe- 
sis, simile,  metaphor,  personification,  which  you  find  in 
a  page  of  Stevenson;  of  Burke;  of  Carlyle;  of  Haw- 

1  These  passages  are  taken  from  the  edition  of  the  "  Speech  on 
Conciliation,"  edited  by  D.  V.  Thompson  (H.  Holt  &  Co.),  who 
credits  the  note  on  the  parallelism  to  Payne's  edition  of  Burke's 
Select  Works, 


Figures  of  Speech  275 

thorne;  of  Lowell;  of  Holmes.  Note  especially  figures 
used  with  a  humorous  effect. 

5.  Express  the  thought  in  each  of  the  following  se- 
lections in  plain,  unfigurative,  unsuggestive  speech. 
What  is  lost? 


In  fact,  Doctor  Blimber's  establishment  was  a  great 
hothouse,  in  which  there  was  a  forcing  apparatus  inces- 
santly at  work.  All  the  boys  blew  before  their  time. 
Mental  green  peas  were  produced  at  Christmas,  and  intel- 
lectual asparagus  all  the  year  round.  Mathematical  goose- 
berries (very  sour  ones  too)  were  common  at  untimely 
seasons,  and  from  mere  sprouts  of  bushes,  under  Doctor 
Blimber's  cultivation.  Every  description  of  Greek  and 
Latin  vegetable  was  got  off  the  driest  twigs  of  boys,  un- 
der the  frostiest  circumstances.  Nature  was  of  no  con- 
sequence at  all.  No  matter  what  a  young  gentleman  was 
intended  to  bear,  Doctor  Blimber  made  him  bear  to  pat- 
tern, somehow  or  other. 

This  was  all  very  pleasant  and  ingenious,  but  the  system 
of  forcing  was  attended  with  its  usual  disadvantages. 
There  was  not  the  right  taste  about  the  premature  produc- 
tions, and  they  did  n't  keep  well.  Moreover,  one  young 
gentleman,  with  a  swollen  nose  and  an  excessively  large 
head  (the  oldest  of  the  ten  who  had  "gone  through" 
everything)  suddenly  left  off  blowing  one  day,  and  re- 
mained in  the  establishment  a  mere  stalk.  And  people  did 
say  that  the  Doctor  had  rather  overdone  it  with  young 
Toots,  and  that  when  he  began  to  have  whiskers  he  left 
off  having  brains. 

Charles  Dickens  :  Domhey  and  Son. 

The  breeze  was  from  the  west :  it  came  over  the  hills, 
sweet  with  scents  of  heath  and  rush ;  the  sky  was  of  stain- 
less blue ;  the  stream  descending  the  ravine,  swelled  with 
past  spring  rains,  poured  along  plentiful  and  clear,  catch- 
ing golden  gleams  from  the  sun,  and  sapphire  tints  from 


276  Words 


the  firmament.  As  we  advanced  and  left  the  track,  we 
trod  a  soft  turf,  mossy  fine  and  emerald  green,  minutely 
enamelled  with  a  tiny  white  flower,  and  spangled  with  a 
star-like  yellow  blossom  :  the  hills,  meantime,  shut  us  quite 
in;  for  the  glen,  towards  its  head,  wound  to  their  very 
core. 

Charlotte  Bronte  :  Jane  Eyre. 

The  great  wheel  of  political  revolution  began  to  move 
in  America.  Here  its  rotation  was  guarded,  regular  and 
safe.  Transferred  to  the  other  continent,  from  unfortu- 
nate but  natural  causes,  it  received  an  irregular  and  vio- 
lent impulse ;  it  whirled  along  with  a  fearful  celerity ;  till 
at  length,  like  the  chariot  wheels  in  the  races  of  antiquity, 
it  took  fire  from  the  rapidity  of  its  own  motion,  and  blazed 
onward,  spreading  conflagration  and  terror  around. 

Webster:  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration. 

And  why  take  ye  thought  for  raiment?  Consider  the 
lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do 
they  spin: 

And  yet  I  say  unto  you.  That  even  Solomon  in  all  his 
glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 

Matthew  VI,  28,  29. 

6.  In  the  paragraph  quoted  in  Chapter  17,  pages  224, 
225,  Carlyle  is  describing  Coleridge's  appearance — age, 
face,  eyes,  figure,  walk,  voice,  and  talk ;  yet  he  suggests, 
also,  the  man's  physical  and  moral  weakness,  mildness, 
suffering,  and  irresolution.  The  following  words,  for 
example,  all  aid  in  the  suggestion  of  irresolution: 
"  heavy-laden,  half-vanquished,  swimming  painfully, 
bewilderment,  flabby  and  irresolute,  confused,  express- 
ive of  weakness,  hung  loosely,  stooping,  shuffled,  con- 
tinually  shifted,    in   corkscrew    fashion,   kept   trying 


Figures  of  Speech  277 

both,  heavy-laden,  much-suffering,  plaintive  snuffle  and 
singsong,  hopelessly,  sang  and  snuffled,  shake  or 
quaver,  rolled  along," 

Make  a  list  of  words  (including  some  of  the  above) 
that  suggest  suffering;  of  those  suggesting  kindness. 

In  the  selection  from  Stevenson's  "  Kidnapped," 
pages  146-148,  note  all  the  words  conveying  images 
or  suggestions  of  sound. 

7.  In  a  description  of  a  sunset,  occur  the  words,  "  red, 
gray,  clouds,  darkness,  brilliant."  For  each  of  these, 
make  a  list  of  five  words  which  might  possibly  be  sub- 
stituted in  its  stead.  These  may  be  synonyms,  or  more 
specific  words,  or  figures  of  speech,  or  even  descriptive 
phrases.  Thus,  "  scarlet,  orange,  flaming,  blushing  " 
might  all  be  used  in  place  of  "  red  " ;  and  Ruskin  uses 
"  drifted  wings  of  many  companies  of  angels  "  for 
"  clouds." 

These  lists  are  to  be  compared  in  order  to  see  how 
many  expressions  can  be  found  by  the  class.  It  will 
then  be  found  possible  to  separate  the  words  suggested 
into  classes  according  to  their  meaning  or  suggestion : 
as,  for  "  red,"  (i)  names  of  colors;  (2)  tropes — from 
fire,  from  flowers;  (3)  personification,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
WORDS  TO  AVOID 

1.  We  have  considered  in  the  last  two  chapters  some 
ways  of  increasing  the  taste  and  judgment  of  the  stu- 
dent in  the  use  of  words  in  order  that  he  may  be  able 
to  answer  for  himself  such  questions  as:  what  word 
to  use  in  a  particular  case;  when  a  certain  word  is 
preferable  to  another;  why  such  a  word  has  more  force 
than  another.  His  answers  to  such  questions  will  de- 
pend less  on  rules  than  on  the  number  of  words  at  his 
command  and  his  knowledge  of  their  value  both  in 
naming  and  suggesting  ideas;  but  there  are  a  number 
of  faults  in  the  choice  of  words  so  common  that  they 
may  be  enumerated  in  rules.  Certain  classes  of  words 
should  be  used  with  caution  or  avoided  altogether. 

2.  Avoid  overusing  words.  Some  words,  good 
enough  in  themselves,  have  become  so  much  overused 
that  they  have  lost  all  their  freshness.  Their  original 
meaning  has  been  rubbed  off  as  they  have  passed  from 
hand  to  hand.  "  Fine,"  "  awfully,"  "  nice,"  "  splen- 
did," "striking,"  "perfectly  lovely,"  "weird,"  are 
words  of  this  sort,  which  are  worked  to  death  by  young 
women.  They  should  be  used  with  caution  and  pre- 
cision.    Once  a  year  something  might  be  "  perfectly 

278 


Words  to  Avoid  279 

lovely  or  "awfully  pretty"  or  '*  weird,"  but  used 
every  day  these  expressions  become  meaningless. 
Sometimes  a  word  comes  into  fashion  and  is  overused 
for  a  few  months  or  years.  So  one  year  the  news- 
papers speak  of  "  gowns,"  the  next  of  "  frocks  " ;  so 
"  environment,"  "  tendency,"  "  lines  "  (of  study, 
thought,  investigation,  etc.),  "  evolution,"  "  tendency," 
"  psychic,"  are  at  present  forced  into  all  kinds  of  ser- 
vice. Sometimes  you  will  find  that  you  are  overusing 
some  particular  word  yourself,  and  thus  blunting  your 
meaning  and  tiring  your  reader.  No  matter  how  ser- 
viceable a  word  may  be,  it  can  do  only  a  certain 
amount  of  work;  it  needs  an  occasional  rest.  Some 
overused  expressions,  however,  have  done  all  the 
work  they  are  capable  of,  and  should  be  left  to  a  peace- 
ful death.  Such  are  trite  phrases,  hackneyed  quota- 
tions, of  which  the  following  are  a  few  examples : 

Barkis  is  willing.  waiting  like  Mica wber  .for 

every  walk  in  life.  something  to  turn  up. 

faded  into  oblivion.  vale  of  tears. 

the  worm  will  turn.  on  his  native  heath, 
misguided  youths. 

3.  Avoid  pretentious  words.  A  word  should  suit  the 
idea  which  it  helps  to  express;  it  should  not  be  too 
large,  too  imposing  for  the  thought.  Some  pretentious 
expressions  might  also  be  classed  under  overused 
words.  Such  are  many  vague  general  terms,  very  use- 
ful in  their  place,  but  often  applied,  when  not  demanded 
by  the  thought,  for  the  sake  of  making  a  show.  "  So- 
ciety," "characteristics,"  "ideals,"  "  ideahsm,"  "real- 


2  8o  Words 

ism,"  are  examples.  Superlative,  extravagant  expres- 
sions are  often  used  with  an  idea  that  they  give  im- 
pressiveness,  but  if  you  use  a  superlative  when  only 
the  positive  degree  is  required,  what  force  will  the  su- 
perlative have  when  it  is  really  needed?  Remember 
that  you  do  not  describe  an  object  by  observing  that  it 
is  "  indescribable,"  and  that  few  things  in  this  world 
are  "  inevitable  "  or  "  infinite."  Don't  say  "  tremen- 
dous "  when  you  mean  "  large,"  or  "  sublime  "  when 
you  mean  "  impressive,"  or  "  brilliant "  when  you  mean 
"  bright."  Don't  speak  of  "  rushing  madly  "  when 
you  mean  "  running  at  a  dog-trot,"  of  being  "  fam- 
ished "  when  you  are  "  hungry,"  or  use  ^'  fascinating  " 
when  you  mean  "  interesting."  Words  like  "  fascina- 
ting," "  tremendous,"  "  sublime,"  should  be  saved  for 
rare  occasions.  The  worst  kind  of  pretentious  expres- 
sions is  ''  Une^zvriting/'  This  is  an  attempt  to  make 
something  seem  more  important  or  beautiful  than  it  is. 
If  a  few  people  clap  their  hands,  it  is  an  "  ovation  "  ;  a 
school  is  "  an  institution  of  learning " ;  a  bed  is  a 
"  downy  couch  " ;  a  new  street  lamp  is  "  a  praisewor- 
thy innovation."  If  a  barn  burns,  it  is  "  a  disastrous 
conflagration  " ;  birds  are  "  feathered  songsters  " ;  the 
snow  is  always  "  a  white  mantle  " ;  the  grass,  "  a  gar- 
ment of  green";  and  the  rain  is  "Nature's  tears." 
Good  style  in  writing,  as  in  dress,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, depends  on  good  taste,  on  suitability  to  the 
subject  and  occasion,  not  at  all  on  tawdry  ornaments 
and  sham  jewelry. 
4.    Avoid  superfluous  words.     You  must  use  enough 


Words  to  Avoid  281 

words  to  make  your  meaning  clear;  there  is  danger  of 
too  few  as  well  as  too  many  words.  Indeed,  the  repe- 
tition of  words  may  add  to  the  clearness  or  force  or 
beauty  of  style.  There  are  too  many  words  only  when 
some  are  useless.  As  we  have  seen  in  preceding  chap- 
ters, good  sentences  may  consist  of  few  or  many  words, 
but  every  word  must  count.  A  prolix  style  wastes 
words  in  repetition,  in  valueless  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
or  in  superfluous  words  and  phrases  of  any  sort.  The 
repetition  of  an  idea,  unless  for  some  good  purpose,  is 
a  fault  that  can  be  readily  corrected  in  revision,  as  in 
the  following  sentence. 

Among  the  alumni  (who  had  graduated  from  this  col- 
lege) were  a  number  of  (old)  veterans  of  the  Civil  War. 

The  use  of  too  many  adjectives  or  adverbs  is  a  fault 
that  may  require  some  pains  to  remedy.  Some  writers 
cannot  use  one  adjective  without  adding  two  more; 
for  them  a  deed  is  never  merely  noble,  but  "  grand, 
noble,  and  generous."  And  they  can  never  let  a  noun 
stand  by  itself,  but  must  prop  it  up  with  an  adjective, 
after  this  fashion: 

This  dreaded  animal,  the  panther  or  painter  of  the 
backwoods-man,  which  has  for  its  kindred  the  royal  tiger 
and  the  fatal  leopard  of  the  Old  World,  the  beautiful  oce- 
lot and  splendid  unconquerable  jaguar  of  the  New.  .  .  . 

Any  of  the  adjectives  will  go  equally  well  with  any  of 
the  nouns.  Other  writers  do  not  like  to  let  a  verb  go 
without  an  adverb;  a  man  is  not  dead,  but  "  unhappily 


282  Words 

dead."  A  careful  writer  will  say  as  much  as  possible 
with  his  nouns  and  verbs,  and  while  he  will  use  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  freely,  he  will  watch  them  for  wasted 
words. 

5.  Superfluous  phrases  usually  have  some  value,  but 
not  enough  for  the  number  of  words  employed.  Ex- 
amine the  following  sentence. 

I  do  not  know  that  there  is  any  more  healthful  game 
that  a  girl  or  a  young  woman,  who  is  fairly  strong  and 
not  nervous,  can  play  during  the  spring  and  fall,  when  it 
is  not  too  hot,  than  the  game  of  basket-ball. 

The  gist  of  the  sentence  is,  "  There  is  no  more  healthful 
game  for  girls  than  basket-ball."  The  clause,  "  who  is 
fairly  strong  and  not  nervous,"  is  a  qualification  of 
considerable  but  not  great  importance ;  "  during  the 
spring  and  fall "  is  of  less  importance;  "  when  it  is  not 
too  hot"  is  of  still  less;  and  "I  do  not  know  that," 
and  "  or  a  young  woman,"  and  "  the  game  of "  are 
phrases  of  no  apparent  value.  The  usefulness  of  each 
expression  can  be  determined  only  by  the  demands  of 
the  subject  and  the  reader;  but  some  or  all  of  these 
clauses  and  phrases  may  surely  be  omitted.  Of  every 
phrase,  then,  you  should  ask,  is  the  idea  worth  the 
words?  Penuriousness  is  not  advised;  the  student 
should  try  to  secure  a  great  wealth  of  words  and 
should  use  them  freely,  but  he  should  not  waste  words. 

6.  Certain  classes  of  words  may  be  proscribed  by  rule. 
Overused  words,  including  trite  phrases  and  hack- 
neyed quotations;  pretentious  words,  especially  fine- 


Words  to  Avoid  283 

writing;  and  superfluous  words  of  all  kinds  are  to  be 
avoided.  Words  are  to  be  chosen  which  will  exactly 
suit  the  student's  ideas,  and  used  for  their  full  value 
and  no  more,  if  his  style  is  to  be  fresh,  unaffected,  and 
concise. 


EXERCISES 


1.  The  words  in  themes  assigned  to  you  may  now 
be  criticized  according  to  the  following  plan. 

*i 

1.  General  or  specific.     Suggest  any  change. 

2.  Figures  of  speech.  Mixture  of  literal  and  figura- 
tive language.     Faulty  metaphors.     Absence  of  figures. 

3.  Suggestiveness. 

4.  Words  to  avoid,  (a)  Overused  words,  (b)  Pre- 
tentious words,     (c)  Superfluous  words. 

5.  Violations  of  Good  Use.  Spelling.  Grammar. 
Meaning  of  words. 

2.  Criticize  the  words  in  the   following  paragraph, 
especially  the  adjectives. 

The  sultry  afternoon  had  merged  into  a  sultry  night. 
The  white  moonbeams  lay  motionless  over  the  dewy  earth, 
and  the  still  night  echoed  drowsily  the  chirp  of  the  cricket. 
From  our  open  window,  Margaret  and  I  lay  gazing  out 
into  the  beautiful  night,  thinking.  Gradually  a  delicious 
sense  of  repose  stole  over  our  wearied  spirits,  and  we 
slept.  How  long  I  never  knew,  but  suddenly,  frightened 
almost  to  insensibility,  we  both  sat  bolt  upright  staring 
at  each  other  in  wild-eyed  terror.  A  sound  as  of  some 
one  trying  to  force  an  entrance  into  the  house,  came  from 


284 


Words 


the  outside  door  of  the  room  adjoining  our  own.  Loud, 
terrific  knocking,  nay  actual  pounding,  smote  our  ears 
and  sent  cold  quivers  rushing  along  our  bodies.  Stiff 
with  fright,  we  could  hardly  utter  a  sound.  We  were 
alone  on  that  floor.  Ashen-faced,  I  gasped,  **  Margaret, 
let 's  go  upstairs.     Hurry !  " 

3.  Examine  and  criticize  according  to  the  outline  in 
Exercise  i,  the  adjectives  in  the  selections  from  Swift 
and  Ruskin  in  Exercises  4  and  5,  Chapter  12;  in  the 
selection  from  Stevenson,  Exercise  15,  Chapter  8. 

4.  In  themes  assigned  to  you,  note  carefully  the  verbs. 
Criticize  them,  suggesting  any  changes. 

5.  Examine  the  following  sentences  with  respect  to 
choice  of  words.  Which  sentence  of  each  pair  is  pref- 
erable? Why?  Can  you  suggest  any  changes  in  the 
choice  of  words?    In  the  sentence  structure? 

A  B 

1.  Through    God    we    shall  i.    Through    God    we    shall 
do  valiantly:  for  he  it  is  that      do  valiantly:  For  he  it  is  that 
shall  tread  down  our  enemies.      shall   tread   down   our   adver- 
saries. 

2.  Woe  unto  the  world  be-  2.  Woe  unto  the  world  be- 
cause of  offences!  for  it  must  cause  of  occasions  of  stumb- 
needs  be  that  offences  come ;  ling !  for  it  must  needs  be  that 
but  woe  to  that  man  by  whom  the  occasions  come ;  but  woe  to 
the  offence  cometh !                          that   man   through   whom   the 

occasion  cometh ! 

3.  The  robbers  also  cast  3.  The  thieves  also  cast  the 
upon  him  the  same  reproach.  same  in  his  teeth. 

4.  She  fell  lifeless,  and  left  4.  She  dropped  down  dead 
her  life  among  the  ethereal  and  left  her  life  among  the  stars 
stars,  and  falling  brings  back  of  heaven;  and  falling  to  the 
the  adhering  arrow.                         ground,  brings  back  the  arrow 

fastened  (in  the  wound). 


Words  to  Avoid 


285 


5.  Why  stand  ye  here  par- 
alyzed, like  fawns?  who,  when 
they  are  weary  with  running 
over  a  vast  plain,  stand  still, 
nor  is  there  any  strength  in 
their  breasts. 

6.  We  were  ascending 
through  a  cloven  rock,  which 
moved  on  one  side  and  on  the 
other,  even  as  the  wave  re- 
treats and  approaches. 

7.  "  We  must  use  some  dex- 
terity," said  my  guide,  "in 
keeping  close  alternately  to 
each  side  that  opens  hollow." 

8.  The  beautiful  planet,  the 
fountain  of  love,  appeared 
with  a  graceful  smile  all  over 
the  east,  spreading  a  veil  of 
light  over  the  fishes,  stationed 
in  its  escort. 

9.  Now  may  it  please  thee 
to  approve  his  coming.  He 
goes  seeking  liberty,  which  is 
so  dear,  as  he  knows  who  for 
her,  refuses  life. 

10.  The  soul  comes  forth 
simple  and  ignorant,  like  a 
babe  that  sports  about,  some- 
times whining  and  sometimes 
smiling,  from  the  hand  of  Him, 
who,  with  joy,  sees  it  before 
its  existence,  and  concerned  for 
nothing  after  leaving  its  boun- 
tiful Creator,  cheerfully  turns 
to  any  object  that  amuses  it. 


B 

5.  Why  stand  ye  here  as- 
tounded, like  fawns,  which, 
when  they  are  wearied  run- 
ning through  the  extensive 
plain,  stand,  and  have  no 
strength  in  their  hearts? 

6.  We  struggled  up  the 
craggy  riven  rocks,  winding  at 
both  sides,  like  the  undulating 
waves  that  roll  and  return. 

7.  "Here  must  be  used  a 
little  art,"  began  the  leader, 
"in  keeping  close,  now  here, 
now  there  to  the  side  which  re- 
cedes." 

8.  The  fair  planet  which 
incites  to  love  was  making  all 
the  Orient  to  smile,  veiling  the 
Fishes  that  were  in  her  train. 


9.  Therefore  condescend  to 
receive  his  visit;  he  is  in 
search  of  liberty,  so  dear,  as  is 
well  known  to  whoever  sacri- 
fices his  life  for  her  sake. 

10.  Forth  from  the  hand  of 
him  who  delights  in  it  ere  it 
exist,  like  a  little  maid  who, 
weeping  and  smiling,  wantons 
childishly,  issues  the  simple 
soul,  which  knows  nothing, 
save  that,  proceeding  from  a 
glad  Maker,  it  willingly  turns 
to  that  which  allures  it. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
GOOD  USE 

1.  In  the  second  chapter  of  this  book  it  was  stated 
that  rhetoric  has  its  foundation  in  grammar  and  a 
correct  use  of  words.  Throughout  the  book  it  has  been 
taken  for  granted  that  the  student  was  trying  to  write 
good  EngHsh,  free  from  foreign  or  vulgar  words  or 
incorrect  grammar.  In  composing  words  into  sen- 
tences, paragraphs,  and  whole  compositions,  we  have, 
indeed,  found  that  we  cannot  use  whatever  words  we 
please  in  any  way  we  please,  but  that  we  are  always 
limited  by  a  fourth  principle,  that  of  Good  Use.  By 
this  principle  of  Good  Use  we  mean  that  in  trying  to 
make  other  people  understand  us,  we  must  accept  the 
standards  which  they  accept,  we  must  in  our  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words  be  guided  by  the  gram- 
mars, and  the  dictionaries,  by  the  usage  of  the  best 
writers.  We  may  now  determine  just  what  is  Good 
Use,  how  extensive  is  its  operation,  and  what  words 
and  constructions  it  forbids. 

2.  Good  Use  is  not  fixed  but  changing,  just  as  our 
language  is  changing.  What  is  slang  to-day  may  be 
used  by  the  best  writers  of  the  next  generation.    Words 

286 


Good  Use  287 

and  constructions  which  our  ancestors  were  familiar 
with  may  be  unknown  to  most  of  us.  Good  Use  is  not, 
therefore,  based  simply  on  the  history  of  the  language. 
A  knowledge  of  the  derivation  and  history  of  words 
is  very  helpful  in  the  correct  use  of  words,  but  words 
of  good  Anglo-Saxon  derivation  used  in  Shakespeare 
and  the  English  Bible  may  be  obsolete  to-day,  while 
new-comers  of  no  very  respectable  lineage  may  be  in 
good  repute.  Good  Use,  again,  is  not  based  on  the 
use  of  the  bookish  and  fastidious.  Careful  and  fastidi- 
ous writers  often  protest  in  vain  against  homely  and 
inexact  constructions  which  prove  their  fitness  by  their 
survival.  Good  Use,  again,  is  not  limited  by  grammar, 
for  idiomatic  expressions  which  disregard  the  strict 
rules  of  grammar  are  constantly  adding  their  vigor 
and  picturesqueness  to  our  language.  Still  further, 
Good  Use  is  not  determined  by  any  one  grammar  or 
dictionary,  or  indeed  by  all  of  them.  Grammars  and 
dictionaries  and  most  text-books  on  rhetoric  do  report 
to  us  what  is  prescribed  by  Good  Use,  but  Good  Use 
is  really  determined  by  the  best  writers  of  English  at 
the  present  time.  It  may  be  defined  as  Present,  Na- 
tional, and  Reputable  Use. 

3'  A  word  or  construction  must  be  in  present  use. 
Most  of  the  words  used  by  King  Alfred,  and  many  of 
those  used  by  Chaucer,  are  not  in  the  written  language 
of  to-day.  On  the  other  hand,  a  word  like  "  talented," 
which  was  scoffed  at  by  all  reputable  writers  of  sev- 
enty years  ago,  is  now  in  perfectly  good  use.  New 
inventions,  new  ideas  are  all  the  time  bringing  new 


2  88  Good  Use 

words  into  the  language;  old  words  which  remain, 
moreover,  often  change  their  meaning.  In  Shake- 
speare, for  example,  "presently"  means  "immedi- 
ately," not,  as  to-day,  "  in  a  short  time,"  "  by  and  by." 
In  the  same  way  the  use  of  constructions  is  changing. 
The  double  negative,  and  "  for  to,"  are  found  in  Shake- 
speare and  the  Bible,  but  they  are  now  incorrect.  The 
expressions  "  had  rather  "  and  "  had  better  "  were  con- 
demned by  Tennyson  and  most  of  the  best  writers  of 
his  day,  but  they  are  recognized  as  good  idioms  to-day. 
4'  A  word  or  construction  must  be  in  national  use. 
That  it  is  used  in  Pennsylvania  or  New  England  does 
not  establish  it  as  a  good  word.  In  some  parts  of  this 
country  "  gums  "  is  used  for  "  over-shoes,"  "  clever  " 
for  "  good-natured,"  "  hitch-up  "  for  "  harness  " 
(verb),  "right"  for  "very."  In  other  parts  of  the 
country  such  provincialisms  would  not  be  understood. 
Other  words  are  used  in  some  particular  business  or 
science  but  are  not  in  general,  national  use.  Others 
are  used  by  Englishmen  and  not  by  Americans.  Eng- 
lishmen, for  example,  say  "  luggage "  instead  of 
"  baggage,"  "  lift  "  instead  of  "  elevator,"  "  railway  " 
instead  of  "  railroad."  They  use,  too,  some  expres- 
sions which  we  regard  as  incorrect ;  as  "  different 
than"  instead  of  "different  from."  In  general,  we 
should  follow  the  best  American  rather  than  the  best 
English  usage,  but  we  should  be  willing  to  accept  the 
English  when  it  seems  distinctly  preferable. 
5'    A  word  or  construction  must  be  in  reputable  use. 


Good  Use  289 

By  reputable  use  we  do  not  mean  the  use  of  the  latest 
novelist  or  the  newspapers,  of  our  town,  or  even  the 
use  of  one  of  the  best  writers  of  the  time,  like  Mr. 
Howells  or  Mr.  Henry  James,  but  the  use  of  all  those 
writers  whom  the  best  judges  hold  in  good  repute. 
Some  words  which  are  used  at  present  all  over  the 
country  have  not  yet  come  into  reputable  use;  such 
are  "  boodle,"  "  hold-up,"  "  stunts,"  "  combine  "  (as  a 
noun),  "it  don't."  Many  other  slang  words  and 
newspaper  phrases  fall  into  this  class. 
6.  Good  Use,  then,  means  the  use  of  the  vast  major- 
ity of  present,  national,  and  reputable  writers.  New 
words  and  old  words,  homely  words  and  bookish 
words,  words  of  all  sorts  of  derivations,  ungrammati- 
cal  expressions  that  have  become  idiomatic,  may  all  be 
admitted  into  Good  Use.  Text-books  and  dictionaries 
attempt  to  discover  and  report  to  us  the  rules  for  the 
use  of  words  and  grammar  that  Good  Use  prescribes. 
The  experienced  writer  or  student  of  the  language 
may  use  his  own  judgment  in  regard  to  the  correct- 
ness or  authority  of  these  rules.  A  beginner  must 
learn  them  and  follow  them,  meanwhile  enlarging  his 
own  knowledge  of  Good  Use  by  observant  reading  in 
our  best  writers.  In  following  rules  of  Good  Use,  he 
may  remember  that  he  is  simply  following  the  sensi- 
ble principle  that  in  writing  for  other  people  he  must 
adopt  their  standards.  There  is  no  surer  way  of  an- 
noying or  offending  an  intelligent  reader  than  by  vio- 
lating a  rule  of  Good  Use. 
19 


290  Good  Use 

EXERCISES 


1.  In  the  first  60  lines  of  "  Julius  Caesar  "  what  words 
occur  that  are  not  used  at  all  to-day  ?  What  words  are 
used  with  different  meanings  to-day  ?  What  words  are 
still  used  in  poetry  but  not  in  prose?  Apply  the  same 
questions  to  the  first  50  lines  of  Milton's  "  L' Allegro  " ; 
to  the  first  25  lines  of  the  "  Prologue  to  the  Canterbury 
Tales." 

2.  The  following  words  were  mentioned  as  barbar- 
isms in  a  rhetoric  in  general  use  as  late  as  1850: 
(neologisms)  opine,  ignore,  fraicheur,  adroitness, 
opiniatry,  opiniatrety;  (obsolescent)  behest,  fantasy, 
tribulation.  In  1835  John  Sterling  criticized  the  fol- 
lowing words  in  Carlyle's  "  Sartor  Resartus  "  as  with- 
out authority:  talented,  environment,  vestural,  sterto- 
rous, visualized,  complected.  Of  these  two  lists  what 
words  are  in  good  use  to-day?  what  are  never  heard? 
3-  In  the  following  passage  what  words  are  technical 
or  slang  and  hence  not  in  good  use?  Rewrite  the 
paragraph,  using  words  that  will  be  intelligible  to  any 
one  with  a  slight  knowledge  of  baseball. 

In  the  seventh  Cooley  was  patient  and  got  a  base  on 
balls.  Hamilton's  clever  bunt  to  the  right  of  the  pitcher's 
box  was  a  base  hit  all  the  time,  but  Bill  Donovan  was  not 
satisfied  to  let  it  go  at  that.  He  picked  up  the  ball  and 
hurled  it  out  of  Joe  Kelley's  reach  and  so  far  into  the 
wilderness  that  Cooley  had  scored  and  Hamilton  was  on 


Good  Use  291 

third  when  Willie  Keeler  retrieved  the  ball.  The  next 
play  was  an  instance  of  how  hard  it  was  to  get  runs  over 
the  plate.  Lowe  drove  a  liner  to  Dolan  in  center  field. 
Nine  times  in  ten  Billy  Hamilton  would  have  scored  on 
the  catch,  but  Casey's  throw  to  the  plate  was  perfect  and 
Farrell  pinned  Hamilton  down  three  feet  from  the 
rubber. 


4.  Make  a  list  of  five  reputable  English  writers  of 
the  present  time  with  whose  writings  you  are  ac- 
quainted. Make  a  list  of  ten  reputable  American  wri- 
ters. These  lists  are  to  be  handed  to  the  instructor. 
5»  In  the  following  passage  what  words  (disregard- 
ing changes  in  spelling)  and  what  constructions  are 
not  in  good  use  to-day  ?  Rewrite  the  passage  in  mod- 
ern English. 

Thenne  was  kyng  Arthure  ware  where  Syr  Mordred 
lenyd  upon  his  swerde  emonge  a  grete  hepe  of  deed  men. 
"  Now  gyve  me  my  spere,"  sayd  Arthur  unto  Syr  Lucan, 
"  for  yonder  I  have  espyed  the  traytour  that  alle  thys  woo 
hath  wrought.''  "  Syr,  late  hym  be,"  sayd  Sir  Lucan,  "  for 
he  is  unhappy;  and  yf  ye  passe  thys  unhappy  day,  ye 
shalle  be  ryght  wel  revengyd  upon  hym.  Good  lord,  re- 
membre  ye  of  your  nyghtes  dreme,  and  what  the  spyryte 
of  Syr  Gauwayn  tolde  you  this  nyght,  yet  God  of  his 
grete  goodnes  hath  preserved  you  hyderto ;  therfore  for 
Goddes  sake,  my  lord,  leve  of  by  thys,  for  blessyd  by  God 
ye  have  wonne  the  fielde ;  for  here  we  ben  thre  on  lyve, 
and  wyth  Syr  Mordred  is  none  on  lyve.  And  yf  ye  leve 
of  now,  thys  wycked  day  of  desteynye  is  paste."  "  Tyde 
me  deth,  betyde  me  lyf ,"  sayth  the  kyng,  "  now  I  see  hym 
yonder  allone,  he  shal  never  escape  myn  handes ;  for  at  a 
better  avaylle  shal  I  never  have  hym."  "  God  spede  you 
wel,"  sayd  Syr  Bedwere.  Thenne  the  kyng  gate  hys 
spere  in  bothe  his  handes,  and  ranne  toward  Syr  Mordred 


292  Good  Use 

cryeng,  "  Tratour,  now  is  thy  deth  day  come.'*  And  whan 
Syr  Mordred  herde  Syr  Arthur  he  ranne  untyl  hym  with 
hys  swerde  drawen  in  his  hande.  And  there  kyng  Arthur 
smote  Syr  Mordred  under  the  shelde  wyth  a  foyne  of  his 
spere  thorughoute  the  body  more  than  a  fadom. 

Sir  Thomas  Malory  (about  1450) :  Morte  Darthur, 

II 

6.  Make  a  list  of  five  violations  of  good  use  that  you 
have  heard  made  in  conversation  within  three  days. 
Make  a  list  of  five  violations  of  good  use  that  you  have 
noticed  in  your  reading. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
IDIOMS.    TRANSLATION  ENGLISH 

1.  An  idiom  is  an  expression  peculiar  to  our  language 
and  cannot  always  be  exactly  translated  into  another 
language.  Many  idioms  cannot  be  squared  with  strict 
grammar,  but  have  nevertheless  worked  their  way  into 
Good  Use.  "  How  do  you  do?  "  "  Please  pass  the 
cake,"  "  to  catch  cold,"  "  to  put  up  with,"  "  full  many 
a,"  are  familiar  examples.  Other  idioms  noticed  in 
the  last  chapter  are  "  had  better,"  "  had  rather,"  "  dif- 
ferent from."  The  verb  "  do  "  is  found  in  many  idio- 
matic expressions.  "  He  does  well  for  (provides  for) 
his  family,  but  this  strike  has  done  for  (ruined)  him." 
"  Do  not  have  anything  to  do  with  him."  "  Did  you 
not  have  your  shirt  done  up  at  this  laundry?"  The 
curious  phrase  "  done  up  "  is  used  in  several  different 
meanings.  It  is  no  objection  to  any  one  of  these  idioms 
that  it  violates  a  grammatical  rule.  Many  construc- 
tions contrary  to  strict  grammar  or  logic  are  doing 
good  service  in  the  language. 

2.  Among  these  serviceable  idioms  we  may  note  the 
following  classes. 

I.     The  use  of  the  double  possessive:  "  This  play  of 
Shakespeare's." 

293 


2  94  Good  Use 

2.  The  use  of  an  adjective  for  an  adverb  after  a  few 
verbs:  *'  to  speak  louder  " ;  "  to  run  faster."  The  longer 
adverbial  forms,  ''more  loudly,"  "more  rapidly,"  are 
being  pushed  out  of  the  language. 

3.  The  use  of  a  noun  for  an  adjective:  "  the  news- 
paper article,"  "  a  university  professor,"  "  a  college  edu- 
cation." We  do  not  form  new  adjectives  readily,  and 
frequently  a  noun  used  as  an  adjective  enables  us  to 
avoid  a  clumsy  phrase;  as  in  the  title  of  this  chapter, 
"  Translation  English." 

4.  The  use  of  a  preposition  at  the  end  of  a  clause  or 
sentence:  "Where  did  you  come  from?"  "What  are 
you  looking  for  ?  " 

3.  These  idioms  do  not  do  away  with  grammar.  The 
double  possessive  occurs  rarely;  you  need  not  often 
end  a  sentence  with  a  preposition.  You  will  need  to 
exercise  great  caution  in  using  adjectives  for  adverbs, 
or  nouns  for  adjectives.  Idioms  are  the  exceptions 
which  prove  the  rules  in  grammar. 
4«  Our  use  of  prepositions  is  largely  a  matter  of 
idiom.  For  example :  one  breaks  into  a  house ;  breaks 
up  housekeeping;  one's  health  may  break  down;  yellow 
fever  breaks  out;  an  engagement  is  broken  off.  The 
following  brief  list  indicates  the  prepositions  required 
to  go  with  certain  words  by  Good  Use. 

accord  with, 
accordance  with, 
according  to. 
agree  with — a  person, 
agree  to — a  proposal, 
confer  on=give  to. 
confer  with  ===  talk  to. 
confide  in=trust  in. 
confide  to = intrust  to. 


Idioms  295 

conform  to. 

dependent  on,  but  independent  of. 

different  from. 

disappointed  in. 

need  of. 

profit  by. 

reconcile  to  or  with. 

rely  on  or  upon,  not  in. 

taste  of — food. 

taste  for = appreciation,  fondness  for. 

5.  Violations  of  idiom  are  likely  to  occur  in  transla- 
tions. A  literal  translation  of  Latin  or  German  often 
makes  very  poor  English.  The  student  should  take 
pains  not  only  to  reproduce  the  thought  of  the  foreign 
language,  but  also  to  put  it  into  idiomatic  English. 
Two  constructions,  borrowed  from  other  languages, 
should  be  used  with  particular  caution. 

1.  The  use  of  the  Latin  ablative  absolute:  "  He  being 
willing,  the  message  was  intrusted  to  his  care."  "  The 
army  advanced  against  the  city,  the  inhabitants  having 
been  informed  of  the  emperor's  death."  Usually  English 
idiom  requires  a  clause  introduced  by  "  when,"  ''  al- 
though," "  since,"  "  because,"  in  place  of  a  Latin  partici- 
pial phrase.  Possibly,  in  consequence  of  the  study  of 
Latin,  participial  phrases  of  all  sorts  are  very  common  in 
school  compositions. 

2.  The  use  of  phrases  in  place  of  adjectives  or  nouns. 
This  is  good  idiom  in  German  but  not  in  English.  Occa- 
sionally a  phrase  may  be  so  used  with  an  epigrammatic  or 
humorous  effect,  but  such  expressions  are  more  likely  to 
be  clumsy  than  apt.  "  Stick-to-it-ive-ness "  may  be  a 
good  word  to  use  once,  but  it  will  hardly  remain  in  the 
English  language.  A  "  pinned  together "  girl  may  be 
recognizable,  but  what  can  you  make  of  this  expression, 
"  a  young  lady  pinned  together  friend  of  mine"? 


296 


Good  Use 


EXERCISES 

In  comparing  the  following  parallel  sentences,  note 
all  unidiomatic  expressions  that  occur.  Which  one  of 
each  pair  of  sentences  seems  to  you  the  better  Eng- 
lish ?    Can  you  suggest  any  improvements  in  it  ? 


FROM  XENOPHON'S  "ANABASIS 


1.  Here  Apollo  is  said  to 
have  flayed,  Marsyas,  after 
conquering  him  in  a  trial  of 
musical  skill,  and  to  have  hung 
his  skin  in  the  cave,  where  the 
source  of  the  stream  rises. 

2.  The  Cicilian  queen,  see- 
ing the  lustre  and  order  of 
their  army,  was  in  admiration, 
and  Cyrus  pleased  to  see  the 
terror  with  which  the  Greeks 
had    struck   the    Barbarians. 

3.  This  coming  to  the  ears 
of  those  who  were  appointed 
to  attend  Cyrus,  made  their  re- 
port to  the  soldiers,  who  sus- 
pected his  design  was  to  lead 
them  against  the  king;  yet 
they  resolved  to  follow  him. 

4.  The  whole  space  be- 
tween the  fortresses  was  three 
stadia;  and  it  was  impossible 
to  pass  it  by  force;  for  the 
passage  was  very  narrow,  the 
walls    reached    down    to    the 


B 

1.  Here  Apollo  is  said  to 
have  slain  Marsyas,  whom,  con- 
tending with  him  in  music,  he 
had  overcome,  and  to  have 
hung  up  his  skin  in  the  cave, 
from  whence  the  springs  flow. 

2.  The  Cicilian  queen,  on  be- 
holding the  splendor  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  army,  was  struck 
with  admiration ;  and  Cyrus 
was  delighted  when  he  saw  the 
terror  with  which  the  Greeks 
inspired  the  Barbarians. 

3.  The  delegates  having 
heard  this  answer,  reported  it 
to  the  soldiers,  who  had  still 
a  suspicion  that  he  was  lead- 
ing them  against  the  king,  but 
nevertheless  resolved  to  ac- 
company him. 

4.  The  interval  between 
them  was  three  stadia  in  the 
whole,  through  which  it  was 
not  possible  to  force  a  way; 
the  pass  being  narrow,  the  for- 
tresses  reaching  down  to  the 


Translation  English  297 


sea,   and   above   were   inacces- 
Llble  rocks. 

5.  As  for  the  bustards,  they 
may  be  taken,  if  one  springs 
them  hastily,  they  •  making 
short  flights,  like  partridges, 
and  are  soon  tired. 

6.  The  breadth  of  this  river 
is  two  plethra,  and  a  bridge 
was  thrown  over  it,  con- 
structed of  seven  boats.  Hav- 
ing crossed  the  stream,  he 
went  forward  through  Phry- 
gia. 


B 

sea,   and   above  were   inacces- 
sible rocks. 

5.  The  bustards  might  be 
taken  if  a  person  started  them 
suddenly;  for  they  fly  but  a 
short  distance,  like  partridges, 
and  soon  tire. 

6.  This  river  is  two  plethra 
in  breadth;  and  having  a 
bridge  over  it,  supported  by 
seven  boats,  he  passed  over, 
and  advanced  through  Phry- 
gia. 


FROM  VIRGIL'S  "^NEID" 


1.  When  these  things  have 
been  said  he  has  struck  the 
hollow  mountain  against  the 
side  with  his  turned  spear 
and  the  winds  as  in  a  formed 
band  burst  forth  where  an 
entrance  has  been  given  and 
blow  over  the  lands  in  a 
whirlwind. 

2.  Nor  desists  he,  till  con- 
queror he  stretches  seven  huge 
deer  on  the  ground,  and  equals 
their  number  with  his  ships. 

3.  To  him,  revolving  such 
cares  in  his  mind,  Venus,  in 
mournful  mood,  her  bright 
eyes  bedimmed  with  tears,  ad- 
dresses herself. 


B 

I.  Thus  having  said,  whirl- 
ing the  point  of  his  spear,  he 
struck  the  hollow  mountain's 
side;  and  the  winds,  as  in  a 
formed  battalion,  rush  forth 
at  every  vent,  and  scour  over 
the  lands  in  a  hurricane. 


2.  Nor  does  he  desist  be- 
fore that  as  a  conqueror  he 
may  prostrate  on  the  ground 
seven  huge  bodies  and  equal 
their  number  with  his  ships. 

3.  Venus,  more  sad,  and  be- 
dewed as  to  her  shining  eyes 
with  tears,  addresses  him  re- 
volving such  cares  in  his  mind. 


298 


Good  Use 


B 


4.  Likewise  his  associates 
joyful  bear  gifts,  which  plenty- 
is  to  each;  and  they  load  the 
altars,  and  sacrifice  bullocks. 

5.  Such  Dares  uplifts  his 
lofty  head  first  in  the  lists,  and 
presents  his  broad  shoulders, 
and  in  alternate  throws  bran- 
dishes his  arms  around,  and 
beats  the  air  with  his  fists. 

6.  Then  the  whole  grove 
resounds  with  the  applause 
and  the  noise  of  the  men,  and 
the  anxiety  of  those  favoring, 
and  the  shores  inclosed  roll 
back  their  voice;  the  beaten 
hills  re-echo  with  the  cry. 

7.  I  have  been  accustomed 
to  these,  when  my  better  blood 
gave  strength,  nor  yet  had  en- 
vious age  turned  me  gray,  be- 
ing sprinkled  on  my  temples. 

8.  He  said  and  stood 
against  the  front  of  the  oppo- 
site bull  that  was  set  for  the 
prize  of  the  combat,  and  rear- 
ing himself  up,  with  his  right 
hand  drawn  back,  leveled  the 
cruel  gauntlets  directly  be- 
tween the  horns;  and,  batter- 
ing the  skull,  drove  through 
the  bones. 

9.  But  to  be  pitied  he  coiild 
not  touch  the  bird  with  lf|| 
dart;  he  broke  the  knots  a^d 


4.  In  like  manner  his  com- 
panions offer  gifts  with  joy, 
each  according  to  his  ability; 
they  load  the  altars  and  sac- 
rifice bullocks. 

5.  Such  was  Dares,  who 
raised  his  lofty  head  in  the 
first  contest,  and  showed  his 
broad  shoulders,  and,  extend- 
ing, he  throws  about  his  arms 
alternately,  and  beats  the  air 
with  blows. 

6.  Then  with  the  applause 
and  uproar  of  the  seamen,  and 
the  eager  acclamations  of  the 
favoring  crowd,  every  grove 
resounds;  the  bounded  shores 
roll  the  voices  on;  the  lashed 
hills  re-echo  the  sound. 

7.  With  these  I  was  wont 
(to  combat)  while  better  blood 
supplied  me  with  strength, 
nor  envious  age  as  yet  had 
scattered  grey  hairs  over  my 
temples. 

8.  He  said  and  stood  oppo- 
site the  front  of  the  bullock, 
which  stood  the  prize  of  the 
contest;  and  high,  with  his 
right  hand  drawn  back,  he 
poised  the  hard  gauntlets  be- 
tween the  horns  and  dashed 
them  into  the  bones,  the  brains 
being  broken. 

9.  But  it  was  his  misfor- 
tune not  to  be  able  to  hit  the 
bird  itself  with  his  shaft:  he 


Translation  English  299 


hempen  bandages,  with  which 
being  bound  as  to  its  foot  it 
hung  from  the  lofty  mast. 

10.  Here  is  unexpectedly- 
presented  to  view  a  prodigy 
designed  to  be  of  high  portent ; 
this  the  important  event  after- 
ward declared,  and  the  alarm- 
ing soothsayers  predicted  the 
omens  late. 

11.  Proceed  go,  said  he, 
and  tell  Ascanius,  if  now  he 
has  the  boyish  troop  prepared 
with  him  and  has  arranged 
the  courses  of  the  horse,  that 
he  should  lead  out  the  bands 
to  his  grandfather  and  show 
himself  in  arms. 


B 

burst  the  cords  and  hempen 
ligaments  to  which  it  hung 
tied  by  the  foot  from  the  high 
mast. 

10.  A  prodigy  suddenly, 
and  about  to  be  a  great  por- 
tent, is  presented  here  to  their 
eyes;  the  great  event  taught 
afterwards,  and  the  terrified 
prophets  foretold  the  late 
omens. 

11.  Go  quick,  says  he,  de- 
sire Ascanius  (if  he  has  now 
gotten  ready  with  him  his 
company  of  boys,  and  has  ar- 
ranged the  movements  of  his 
horses)  to  bring  up  his  troops, 
and  show  himself  in  arms  in 
honor  of  his  grandsire. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

BARBARISMS.    IMPROPRIETIES 

A  Barbarism  is  a  word  not  in  good  use.  The  fol- 
lowing list  includes  a  few  of  those  most  commonly 
seen. 

Foreign  Words— for  which  there  are  good  English  equiv- 
alents. Artist  (for  actor),  distingue,  furore,  in  medias 
res,  nee,  role  (part). 

Obsolete  "Words,  foreword,  (an  affectation  for  preface),  for 
to,  gotten    (for  got),  quoth. 

New  Coinages,  baseballist,  burglarize,  bike,  combine 
(noun), educationalist, suicide  (verb), trolley  (for trolley 
car). 

Slang,  invite  (noun),  nit,  size  up,  squelch  (snub),  steal 
(noun),  stunt. 

Technical  words,  luff,  go  in  stays,  cut  on  the  bias,  home- 
run. 

localisms,      carryall,  homesteader,  illy,  sightly. 

Abbreviations,  cap  (captain),  exam,  gent,  gym,  prexy,  prof. 

Vulgarisms,     ain't,  everywheres,  tasty. 

Pope  gave  some  good  advice  on  the  use  of  words 
which  has  been  quoted  in  all  text-books  on  rhetoric 
and  may  be  repeated  here. 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold ; 
Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new,  or  old ; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside, 
300 


Barbarisms  301 

An  Impropriety  is  a  word  used  in  a  sense  not  author- 
ized by  good  use.  Where  the  student  is  guilty  of  one 
Barbarism,  he  is  probably  guilty  of  twenty  Improprie- 
ties. The  exercises  which  follow  offer  some  opportu- 
nities to  test  his  ability  to  choose  between  proper  and 
improper  expressions.  At  the  close  of  the  exercises  is 
a  list  of  some  of  the  most  common  improprieties,  in- 
tended for  convenient  reference. 

EXERCISES 

In  the  following  sentences,  choose  from  each  paren- 
thesis the  word  which  seems  to  you  preferable.  All 
improprieties  in  these  sentences  are  included  in  the  list 
at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

(l?)  If  your  book  is  to  (affect,  effect)  any  reform,  it  must 
(affect,  effect)  the  emotions  of  your  readers, 

2,  He  would  not  (admit,  allow)  that  he  was  suffering;  he 
(allowed,  declared,)   in  fact,  that  he  was  in  the  best  of  health, 

3,  (While,  When)  the  storm  was  in  progress,  we  remained  in 
his   (home,  house)  ;    (when,  while)   it  was  over,  we  went  on, 

4,  How  long  have  you  been  (staying,  stopping)  at  this  hotel? 

5,  I  have  sent  my  (acceptance,  acceptation)  of  the  invitation, 

6,  Students  are  (apt,  likely,  liable)  to  write  their  themes  hast- 
ily, (as,  since,  because)  they  do  not  realize  the  value  of  careful  re- 
vision. 

7,  All  the  (parties,  persons)  to  whom  I  wrote  answered  (quite, 
very)  promptly. 

8,  I  (respectfully,  respectively)  ask  you  to  (pay,  settle)  this 
bill. 

9,  All  the  (scholars,  students)  in  our  class  (like,  love)  to 
read  the  Waverley  Novels. 

10,  Of  the  four  candidates  for  president,  (neither,  no  one) 
received  a  (ipajority,  plurality). 


302 


Good  Use 


"S 


(jji  When  I  refused  to  (lend,  loan)  him  any  more  money,  he 
became  (quite,  very)    (angry,  mad), 

12.  I  have  already  (alluded  to,  mentioned)  the  general  (ob- 
servance, observation)   of  Arbor  Day  in  this  state. 

13.  We  went  (in,  into)  the  house,  but  not  a  (individual,  per- 
son) was  there. 

14.  (Leave,  Let)  him  stay  at  the  (depot,  station). 

15.  I  (confess,  admit)  that  it  is  difficult  to  (learn,  teach)  stu- 
dents the  (distinct,  distinctive)  qualities  of  a  good  paragraph. 

16.  We  saw  a  (lady,  woman)  and  a  (gentleman,  man)  in  the 
(carriage,  team). 

17.  My  opinion  is  (decided,  decisive)  that  (continual,  con- 
tinuous) writing  is  necessary  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
rhetoric. 

18.  They  have  just  (discovered,  invented)  the  bacillus  of 
typhoid  fever. 

19.  I  can  recall  every  (circumstance,  feature)  of  the  day. 

20.  We  went   (almost,  most)   to  the  post-office. 

21.  The  (balance,  remainder,  rest)  of  the  audience  remained. 

22.  The  recitation  was   (oral,  verbal). 

^23.  This  rain  is  very  (aggravating,  annoying,)  for  I  had  in- 
tended to  go  to  town  to-day. 

24.  She  (can,  may)  not  go  until  she  has  (arranged,  fixed,  put 
in  order)  my  books  in  the  library. 

25.  I  should  like  your  (council,  counsel)  how  to  (derive, 
eliminate)    some  conclusions    from   these    (data,   datum). 

26.  It  was  a  (beautiful,  ideal)  day,  and  we  had  an  (elegant, 
enjoyable)  time,  finally  (driving,  riding)  home  in  Mr.  Smith's 
(carriage,  team). 

.  27.  If  we  take  up  the  various  (items,  matters,  points)  in  the 
report,  and  consider  their  (respective,  respectful)  merits,  we 
shall  not  be  (apt,  liable,  likely)  to  overlook  any  (proposal,  propo- 
sition) that  we  ought  to  refuse. 

28.  His  bravery  was  (exceptional,  exceptionable,)  (as,  be- 
cause) it  was  (human,  humane)  as  well  as  daring. 

29.  (Among,  Between)   the  eleven  there  is  much  dissension. 

30.  He  (prescribed,  proscribed)  a  (preventative,  preventive) 
for  the  evil. 


Improprieties  303 

For  the  improprieties,  italicized  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, substitute  preferable  expressions. 

1.  When  I  heard  the  explosion,  I  feared  that  some  accident 
had  transpired. 

2.  It  is  impossible  to  predicate  the  result  of  the  election. 
/3.'  The  observation  of  a  few  rules  will  help  you  in  the  struc- 

tiife  of  your  sentences. 

4.  I  had  quite  a  nice  time  though  it  rained  real  hard. 

5.  He  lead  the  way  with  aggravating  coolness. 

6.  Although  it  is  not  liable  to  be  pleasant,  we  shall  likely  go. 
C^  He  is  laying  in  the  shade,  having  an  elegant  time. 

8.  The  whole  of  the  students  desired  a  holiday. 

9.  He  don't  ride  on  the  electrics  any  more. 

10.  The  party  fjho  was  to  sing  a  solo  has  not  yet  arrived. 


IMPROPRIETIES 

In  this  list  the  impropriety  is  always  printed  first  in 
black- faced  type  and  the  correct  word  second  in  ordi- 
nary type;  as,  "aggravate,  for  annoy  or  irritate." 
When,  however,  two  w^ords  are  confused  in  meaning, 
each  being  sometimes  misused  for  the  other,  both  are 
printed  in  black- faced  type ;  as,  "  affect,  effect." 

This  list  calls  attention  to  some  of  the  distinctions 
between  words  that  are  most  commonly  neglected.  For 
full  definition  and  discrimination  of  the  meanings  a 
dictionary  should  be  consulted. 

Acceptance,  acceptation.  Acceptance  is  "the  act  of  accepting"  or 
"favorable  reception."  Acceptation  is  "the  sense  in  which  an 
expression  is  accepted." 

affect,  effect.  To  affect  is  to  influence;  to  effect  is  to  accom- 
plish. 


304  Good  Use 

aggravate,  for  annoy  or  irritate.  The  proper  meaning  for  ag- 
gravate is  to  make  heavier  or  worse. 

allow,  for  declare  or  admit.     A  colloquialism. 

allude,  for  mention.  We  allude  to  something  not  distinctly  men- 
tioned. 

alone,  for  only.  This  use — as,  "  Not  alone  at  Ephesus,  but  al- 
most throughout  all  Asia" — is  now  nearly  obsolete.  Alone  is 
restricted  to  the  meaning,  "solitary,"  "unaccompanied." 

alternative,  for  choice — when  there  are  more  than  two  things. 

among,  between.  Between  applies  only  to  two ;  among  to  more 
than  two.  Between,  however,  is  sometimes  used  of  more  than 
two  things,  to  indicate  contrast  or  opposition;  as,  "distinc- 
tions between  words." 

apt,  liable,  likely.  Likely  denotes  any  kind  of  probability;  apt, 
probability  arising  from  natural  tendency  of  persons  or  things ; 
liable,  an  unpleasant  probability.  "  It  is  likely  to  be  pleasant." 
"  The  poor  are  apt  to  be  proud."  "  He  is  liable  to  die  from 
the  wound."  Apt  and  liable  are  often  used  improperly  for 
likely. 

as,  overused  for  since,  because,  or  when. 

avocation,  vocation.  Vocation  means  one's  regular  calling  cr 
business;  avocation,  some  occupation  other  than  the  regular 
one. 

balance,  for  rest  or  remainder.  Balance  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  sides  of  an  account.  Remainder  is  a  small  part 
left  over ;  rest  may  be  a  large  or  a  small  part. 

between,  for  among.     See  among. 

bring,  carry,  fetch.  "Bring  (bear  hither)  the  book  to  me,  and 
I  will  carry  (bear  thence)  it  to  town."  Fetch  means  "  go  and 
bring." 

but  what,  for  but  that. 

calculate,  for  intend,  believe,  think.    A  provincialism. 

can,  may  (as  auxiliaries).  Can  refers  to  some  form  of  abil- 
ity; may,  to  some  form  of  permission,  or  possibility. 

capacity,  for  ability. 

claim,  for  assert,  maintain.  To  claim  is  to  demand  for  one's 
own,  or  for  one's  right  or  advantage. 

clever,  for  good-natured  or  kind.    A  provincialism. 


Improprieties  305 

complement,  compliment.  Complement  is  a  full  quantity  or 
what  is  needed  to  complete  a  quantity;  compliment  is  an  ex- 
pression of  praise. 

confess,  for  admit. 

continual,  continuous.  Continual  is  used  of  oft-repeated  actsj 
continuous,  more  properly  of  uninterrupted  action. 

council,  counsel.  A  council  is  a  body  of  men;  counsel  means 
advice  or  a  person  who  gives  advice. 

credible,  creditable,  credulous.     That  is  credible  which  may  be 
believecl;   that   is   creditable   which   deserves   credit   or   is   in 
y   good  repute.    A  credulous  person  is  one  who  is  easily  de- 
ceived. 

decided,  decisive.  A  decided  opinion  is  a  strong  one ;  a  decisive 
opinion  settles  the  case. 

depot,  for  station.  Depot  is  in  general  use,  but  careful  writers 
prefer  to  write  "railway  station." 

deprecate,  depreciate.  To  deprecate  is  to  express  regret  for  or 
to  argue  against;  to  depreciate  is  to  lower  the  value  of. 

different  to,  or  dififerent  than,  for  different  from. 

discover,  invent.     The  steam-engine  was  invented;  the  Roentgen 
rays  were  discovered. 
\/  distpct)  distinctive.    Distinct  means  separate ;  distinctive  means 
characteristic. 

done,  for  did.    Never  say,  "He  done  it." 

don't,  for  does  n't.    Do  not  say,  "He  don't." 

e5^ct^  affect.    See  affect. 

elegant,  as  a  general  term  of  approval.    Elegant  implies  elegance. 

eliminate,  for  derive.  To  eliminate  is  to  thrust  out,  not  to  bring 
in.  The  author  tries  to  eliminate  all  errors  from  this  book ;  he 
tries  to  derive  (not  to  eliminate)  principles  from  a  mass  of 
details. 

emigrants,  immigrants.  Foreigners  coming  to  this  country  are 
emigrants  from  their  fatherlands  and  immigrants  to  America. 

exceptionable,  exceptional.  An  exceptional  case  is  one  making 
an  exception,  contrary  to  rule ;  exceptionable  conduct  is  con- 
duct to  which  exception  can  be  taken. 

feature,  for  circumstance,  or  characteristic. 

fix,  overused  for  adjust,  put  in  order. 


( 

y 


3o6 


Good  Use 


flee,  fly,  flow.     See  page  315. 

function,  for  party,  entertainment.  A  function  is  an  official  cere- 
mony of  an  elaborate  sort. 

gentleman,  for  man.  Gentleman  should  be  used  to  designate  a 
man  of  certain  qualities. 

had  n't  ought,  for  ought  not.    A  vulgarism. 

home,  for  house.  A  man's  home  is  his  habitual  place  of  abode; 
it  may  or  may  not  be  a  house. 

hur^^y  hu"iar,**  Men  are  all  human;  only  compassionate  men 
are  humane. 

ideal,  used  carelessly  for  beautiful,  noble,  delightful. 

if,  for  whether. 

immigrants,  emigrants.     See  emigrants. 

in,  into.  Into  denotes  motion  toward.  You  are  in  a  carriage 
after  you  have  jumped  into  it. 

individual,  for  person.  Individual  should  be  used  only  for  a 
single  person,  opposed  to  many. 

kind  of  a,  for  kind  of. 

lady,  for  woman  or  wife. 

last,  latest.  Latest  has  a  reference  to  time;  last  may  have  no 
reference  to  time.  "  The  latest  news  " ;  "  the  last  house  on  the 
street." 

lead,  for  led.     Perhaps  a  mistake  in  spelling. 

learn,  teach.  "  You  can't  teach  an  old  dog  new  tricks " ;  the 
dog  can't  learn  them. 

leave,  let.    Leave  means  to  let  remain,  or  to  go  away  from. 

lie,  lay.     See  page  315. 

like,  for  as.  '*  Do  as  I  do,"— not  "  Do  like  I  do."  The  vulgar- 
ism like  as  for  as  is  current  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 

likely,  liable,  apt.     See  apt. 

loan,  for  lend.    Loan  is  not  in  good  use  as  a  verb. 

love,  for  like.  Sometimes  incorrectly  used  when  there  is  no 
reference  to  the  affections. 

mad,  for  angry.  Mad  means  insane;  though  its  use  for  angry 
in  some  cases  is,  perhaps,  permissible  in  conversation. 

majority,  plurality.  A  plurality  is  the  excess  of  votes  for  one 
candidate  over  those  for  another;  a  majority  is  more  than 
half  of  the  whole  number.  A  plurality  may  be  much  less  than 
a  majority. 


Improprieties  307 

most,  for  almost.    An  abbreviation. 

neither,  for  no  one,  when  there  are  more  than  two. 

nice,  much  overused  for  pleasant. 

rti^gArTr^pr^^  yhservatjon.  An  observance  is  a  celebration,  or  the 
act  of  complying  with;  observation  is  notice,  or  the  act  of 
looking  at.  "The  observance  of  a  birthday";  "the  observa- 
tion of  a  star."  "  The  observance  of  the  rules  of  grammar  " ; 
"the  observation  of  mistakes  in  the  themes." 

onto,  for  on  or  upon.  Onto  seems  to  be  coming  into  good  use 
but  can  usually  be  avoided. 

oral,  verbal.     Oral  means  in  spoken  words;  verbal,  in  words. 

party,  for  person.  A  party  is  a  number  of  persons.  In  legal 
phraseology  a  person  may  be  a  party  to  a  contract. 

pled,  for  pleaded. 

point,  much  overused  in  various  senses. 

predicate,  for  predict.  To  predicate  is  to  affirm  as  a  quality; 
to  predict  is  to  foretell. 

prescribe,  proscribe.  Synonyms  of  prescribe  are  command,  desig- 
nate, establish;  of  proscribe,  doom,  forbid. 

preventative,  for  preventive. 

progosal^progosition.  A  proposal  is  something  proposed  to  be 
done  ;  a  proposition  something  proposed  for  one's  consideration. 
"The  proposition  that  a  new  building  was  needed  was  being 

debated,  when  he  came  forward  with  a  proposal  to  build  one  at 

his  own  expense." 

quite,  for  very  or  rather.  Quite  means  wholly ;  though  its  use  for 
very  is  almost  universal  in  conversation. 

raise,  for  bring  up  or  rear.     Cattle,  not  men,  are  raised. 

real,  for  really  or  very.    Real  is  not  an  adverb. 

r<>spprt^y]1y,  yygpfiptivply  Respectfully  means  in  a  deferential 
way;  respectively,  severally. 

ride,  for  drive.  You  ride  horseback,  but  drive  a  horse  in  a  car- 
riage. 

scholar,  for  pupil  or  student. 

settle,  for  pay. 

shall,  will;  should,  would.     See  page  317. 

sit,  set.     See  page  315. 

stop,  for  stay.  Stop  may  well  be  restricted  to  the  meaning,  "  to 
stop  without  staying." 


3o8 


Good  Use 


team,  for  carriage.  Team  is  used  for  two  or  more  beasts  or 
persons,  not  for  a  vehicle. 

transpire,  for  happen.  To  transpire  means  to  leak  out,  to  be- 
come public  gradually;  to  happen  is  to  occur. 

verbal,  oral.     See  oral. 

while,  for  when.  Strictly  speaking,  while  means  "during  the 
time  that";  when,  "at  the  time  that."  While  should  not  be 
used  unless  there  is  some  implication  of  duration  of  time. 

whole,  for  all.  Whole  is  used  of  something  considered  as  a 
unit;  all  with  reference  to  a  number  of  persons  or  things. 

without,  for  unless. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

SOLECISMS 

A  solecism  is  a  mistake  in  grammar.  If  a  writer 
makes  grammatical  mistakes,  you  at  once  conclude  that 
he  does  not  know  his  business.  In  conversation,  to  be 
sure,  some  slight  inaccuracies  may  be  permitted,  but 
in  writing  there  is  plenty  of  time  to  correct  one's 
faults.  English  syntax  is  not  very  complex,  but  it  con- 
tains a  good  many  constructions  that  need  careful 
study  if  you  are  to  make  no  mistakes.  These  exercises 
afford  the  student  an  opportunity  to  test  his  practice; 
following  the  exercises  is  a  discussion  of  many  of  the 
most  common  solecisms. 

EXERCISES 

In  the  following  exercises  words  are  italicized  or 
dashes  inserted,  for  which  you  are  to  substitute  the 
correct  expressions.  From  several  words  indicated 
you  are  to  choose  the  grammatical  one.  If  the  choice 
of  words  involves  a  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence,  explain  the  difference. 

I.     A,  an,  the,  or  no  article. 

I.  In warm   weather  you   will   not    suffer    from 

lack  of  clothing.     2.  He  is  entitled  to promo- 

309 


3IO  Good  Use 

tion.     3.  educated    men    do    not    read    that    kind 

of paper.        4.  To student    of Latin, 

English  inflected  forms  seem  few.     5.  Your  themes  are 
faulty  both  in sentences  and paragraphs. 

2.  I,  me,  myself. 

I.  My  sister  and have  read  the  stories.     2.  They 

have  been  very  kind  to  both  my  sister  and .     3.  She 

is  taller  than .    4.  Every  one  had  gone  except  you 

and .     5.  will  go .     6.  She  knew  it  to  be 

.     7.  Between  you  and ,  I  wish  it  were . 

3.  He,  him,  himself. 

I.  Charles wrote  that  letter.     2.  I  knew  it  to  be 

3.  None  can  run  fast  except  John  and ,  but 


John  can  run  faster  than .     4.  Good  students,  like 

you  and ,  ought  to  write  better  themes.     5.  That  is 

coming  up  the  street. 

4.  Who,  whom. 

I.  do  you  think  she  looks  like?    2.  do  you 

think  he  is  ?     3.  do  you  think  him  to  be  ?    4.  

do  you  think  will  go?     5.  do  you  think  they  will 

send  ?     6.  is  that  for  ?     7.     He  gave  the  presents  to 

those he  thought  deserved  them.     8.  He  gave  the 

presents   to   those he   thought   he   could   bribe.     9. 

There  is  John,  we  expected  to  be  late.     10.  

could  it  have  been?     11.  I  cannot  tell to  send  for. 

5.  Substitute  the  past  tense  for  the  present. 

I.  They  begin  to  come.  2.  Mr.  Jones  bids  me  to  say 
that  he  bids  $10.  3.  The  bird  Hies;  the  river  Hows;  the 
coward  flees.  4.  The  superintendent  lies  back  in  his  car- 
riage, while  the  workingmen  lay  the  track.  5.  I  lie  in 
the  hammock.  6.  I  lay  the  book  on  the  table.  7.  I 
choose  this  apple. 


Solecisms  311 


6.  Change  to  the  perfect  tense. 

I.  He  wakes,  and  they  go.  2.  They  lie  in  the  grass.  3. 
He  pleads  earnestly  but  proves  nothing.  4.  I  set  the  lamp 
on  the  table.     5.  I  sit  by  the  table.     6.  He  gets  the  place. 

7.  He  stole  my  watch.  8.  He  took  my  hat.  9.  He  wrote 
home.  10.  She  wakes  early  and  sets  the  table.  11.  He 
rose  from  his  chair  and  hung  his  coat  in  the  closet.  12. 
He  broke  his  arm. 

7.     Shall  or  Will. 

I.  I be    beaten    unless    he help    me.     2.  We 

have  a  wet  day.     3.  I be  obliged  to  you,   if 

you give   me   your   assistance.     4.  If    determination 

can  do  it,  we win.     5.  He  tells  me  that  he be 

fifty  years  old  in  April.     6.  He  thinks  that  his  brother 

get  the  prize.     7.  He  has  made  up  his  mind  that 

he not     go.     8.  1     call     to-morrow  ?    9.  

you  have  time  to  say  good-by?     10.  you  call  for 

me  to-morrow? 


8.     Should  or  Would. 

I.  I hardly  know  him.     2.  we  be  safe?     3. 

If  it be   foggy,  the  boat not  start.     4.  I 

be  heartbroken  if  he die.     5.  If  he  decided  that  he 

not  come,  I be  obliged  to  stay.     6.  I  did  not 

think  that  I enjoy  the  picnic,  but  he  felt  sure  that 

he .     7.  He    feared    that    he die.     8.  you 

go  if  I send  a  carriage  ? 


g.    To  or  To  have. 

I.  It    would    have    been    difficult refuse (d) 


help(ed)  him.     2.  He  intended see(n)  you  to-mor- 
row.    3.  He  expected (win,  won)  the  race.     4.  He 

is   lucky (meet,   met)    him  yesterday.     5.  He   had 

hoped see(n)  you  a  week  ago. 


312 


Good  Use 


10.    All  violations  of  good  use  in  the  following  sen- 
tences are  to  be  noted  and  corrected. 

EXAMPLES  OF  BAD  ENGLISH 

1.  I  am  afraid  I  will  differ  from  such  an  individual  as  him. 

2.  Who  did  you  stop  with  over  Sunday? 

3.  I  do  not  see  but  what  you  ought  to  plainly  tell  him  his 
mistake. 

4.  Each  student  who  only  had  one  memoranda  was  repri- 
manded by  their  teacher. 

5.  I  do  not  hardly  think  that  there  are  two  spoonsful  of  sugar 
in  the  bucket. 

6.  Neither  of  our  three  friends  begun  as  early  as  yourself. 

7.  He  has  spoke  the  most  absolutely  incorrect  English  that  I 
ever  heard. 

8.  Should  you  whip  your  child  if  she  runs  away  from  home? 

9.  We  are  liable  to  have  a  pleasant  day  to-morrow,  so  we  will 
likely  take  a  drive. 

10.  The  black  and  white  canines  were  both  laying  on  their 
backs. 

11.  He  fell  off  the  trolley  onto  the  ground, 

12.  Every  one  was  dressed  in  their  best;  it  is  a  beautiful 
sunny  day,  one  of  those  kind  we  have  been  longing  for. 

13.  He  neither  took  them  in  the  house  or  gave  them  clothing. 

14.  The  train  was  composed  entirely  of  parlor  cars,  which 
were  quite  well  filled  by  the  passengers,  not  one  of  whom  will 
forget  their  narrow  escape. 

15.  They  would  have  been  glad  to  have  sent  that  kind  of  a 
book. 

A  List  of  Common  Mistakes  in  Grammar 

This  list  contains  only  those  constructions  in  the  use 
of  which  mistakes  are  frequently  made.  All  examples 
given  are  of  correct  usage,  unless  they  are  preceded  by 
the  word  not  in  black- faced  type.  Not  indicates  that 
the  expression  following  is  an  example  of  misuse. 


Solecisms  313 

ARTICLES 

The  use  of  a  or  an  in  the  expressions  "sort  of  a"  and  "kind 
of  a  "  is  a  common  error.     "  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  dog." 

The  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  for  a  or  when  no  article  is 
necessary.  "He  threw  a  stone  (or  stones)  at  the  dog" — particu- 
larizes the  dog  but  not  the  stone. 

The  omission  of  an  article  may  cause  confusion.  "  A  black 
and  white  dog"  refers  to  one  dog;  "a  black  and  a  white  dog" 
to  two  dogs. 

NOUNS 

The  Possessive  Case  is  formed  by  adding  's  to  the  nominative ; 
but  the  s  is  sometimes  omitted  when  the  sound  is  unpleasant ;  as, 
"  for  conscience'  sake,"  "  Socrates'  wife."  If  the  nominative  plural 
end  in  s,  the  possessive  plural  is  formed  by  adding  the  apostrophe 
(')  ;  if  the  nominative  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  's  is  added. 
"  Girls'  and  women's  shoes." 

The  possessive  case  should  as  far  as  possible  be  used  only  in 
cases  of  actual  possession.  "  The  leg  of  the  table "  not,  "  the 
table's  leg."    "  The  course  of  history  " — not,  "  history's  course.'* 

The  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  cause  trouble :  alumna, 
alumnae;  alumnus,  alumni;  analysis,  analyses;  axis,  axes; 
cherub,  cherubim  or  cherubs;  curriculum,  curricula;  genius, 
geniuses  (men)  or  genii  (spirits);  ignoramus,  ignoramuses; 
maximum,  maxima;  memorandum,  memoranda;  phenomenon, 
phenomena ;  seraph,  seraphim  or  seraphs ;  spoonful,  spoonfuls ; 
stimulus,  stimuli ;  tableau,  tableaux. 

PRONOUNS 

The  Personal  Pronouns  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases 
are  often  confused.  The  following  are  examples  of  correct  use. 
"  It  is  he."  "  I  do  not  think  it  to  be  him."  "  It  seems  to  be  he." 
"  Between  you  and  me  there  is  no  disagreement." 

Pronouns  ending  in  -self  are  properly  used  only  for  emphasis 
or  in  a  reflective  sense.  "  I  will  see  to  it  myself."  "  It  is  he, 
himself."     Not — "You  and  myself  will  go;"  "it  is  himself." 

Before  'a  verbal  noun,  a  pronoun  should  be  put  in  the  posses- 
sive  case.    "  Your  singing  was   delightful."    "  I   remember   his 


314  Good  Use 


telling  that  story,"  But  the  possessive  is  not  used  with  a  par- 
ticiple.    "  I  heard  you  singing  and  him  telling  a  story." 

When  more  than  two  persons  or  things  are  referred  to,  any 
one  is  preferable  to  either;  no  one  to  neither.  "  Any  one  of  the 
three  is  taller  than  I." 

Any  one,  each,  either,  every,  neither,  nobody,  or  not  one,  as  an 
antecedent,  requires  a  pronoun  in  the  singular  number.  "  If  any 
one  has  the  example  correct,  let  him  hold  up  his  hand."  "  Every 
one  of  them  gave  up  his  arms."    "  Each  must  judge  for  himself." 

Each  other  and  one  another  may  be  used  indiscriminately. 

Who  and  whom  must  be  carefully  distinguished.  "  Whom  are 
you  following  ?  "  "  Who  do  you  think  will  win  ?  "  "  Whom  will 
you  give  it  to  ?  " 

Who,  which,  and  that.  Who  and  which  are  used  in  explan- 
atory, descriptive,  non-restrictive  relative  clauses;  that  in  relative 
clauses  restricting  the  meaning  or  application  of  the  antece- 
dent ;  as,  "  the  countries  that  bordered  on  the  ocean " — mean- 
ing "  only  the  countries  that  bordered  on  the  ocean."  This 
distinction  has  been  much  insisted  on  in  rhetorics  but  is  open  to 
many  exceptions  and  has  never  been  generally  adopted  in  good 
use.  Although  that  is  the  customary  word  for  restrictive  rela- 
tive clauses,  who  or  which  may  frequently  be  preferable. 

A  change  of  person  should  not  be  made  without  good  reason. 
If  you  begin  a  composition  in  the  third  person,  you  should  not 
change  to  the  first;  and  vice  versa. 

VERBS 

Vulgarisms  must  be  shunned.  "  He  did  " — not,  "  he  done  It." 
"  He  is  n't  "—not,  "  he  ain't."  "  It  does  n't  "—not,  "  it  don't." 
"  He  ought  not  " — not,  "  he  had  n't  ought."  "  You  were  "—not, 
*'you  was." 

The  Principal  Parts  of  certain  verbs  must  be  thoroughly 
learned  if  you  are  to  avoid  many  common  solecisms  and  im- 
proprieties. 


PRESENT 

PAST    INDICATIVE 

PAST  PARTiaPLE 

begin 

began 

begun 

bid  (ask,  or  command) 

bade 

bidden 

Solecisms 

315 

PRESENT 

PAST    INDICATIVE 

PAST  PARTICIPLE 

bid    (as,  to  bid 

at 

an 

bid 

bid 

auction) 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

do 

did 

done 

eat 

ate  (eat  (et)is  per- 
missible) 

eaten 

flee 

fled 

fled 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

fly 

flew 

flown 

get 

got 

got    (preferable    to 
gotten) 

hang  (clothes,  pictures) 

hung 

hung 

hang    (men) 

hanged 

hanged 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lie 

lay 

lain 

plead 
prove 

pleaded 
proved 

pleaded 

proved  (preferable  to 
proven) 

raise 

raised 

raised 

rise 

rose 

risen 

set 

set 

set 

sit 

sat 

sat 

wake 

woke 

waked 

write 

wrote 

written 

Tenses 
A  change  from  the  present  to  the  past  tense  in  passages  deal- 
ing with  past  events  should  occur  very  rarely.  In  general  keep 
to  the  past  tense;  the  historical  present  (the  present  tense  used 
in  relating  past  events)  sometimes  promotes  emphasis  and  vivid- 
ness, but  only  if  employed  infrequently. 

Sequence  of  Tenses.    The  tense  of  the  verb  in  a  dependent 
clause  depends  on  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  principal  clause. 
General  truths,  however,  are  always  put  in  the  present  tense. 
I  think  he  will.  I  thought  he  would. 

When  you  have  finished,  I  When  you  had  finished, 

will  speak.  I  spoke. 

Every  one  hopes  that  you  Every  one  hoped  that  you 

will  speak,  would  speak. 


3i6 


Good  Use 


I  had  always  believed  that  men  are  a  little  lower  than  the 
angels. 

The  Perfect  Infinitive  denotes  action  completed  at  the  time  of 
the  principal  verb;  the  present  infinitive,  action  incomplete  at  the 
time  of  the  principal  verb.  Past  tenses  are  followed  by  the  pres- 
ent infinitive. 

I  am  glad  to  have  seen  you  so  often  the  past  week. 
They  expected  to  win.     (Not,  to  have  won). 
He  will  be  glad  to  see  us.     (When  he  sees  us.) 
He  will  be  glad  to  have  seen  us.     (After  he  has  seen  us.) 
They  would  have  been  glad  to  go  home.     (Not,  to  have  gone.) 
We  should  have  been  pleased  to  catch  a  few  fish.     (Not,  to 
have  caught.) 

Moods 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  of  the  verb  "  to  be,"  rather  than  the  in- 
dicative, should  be  used  in  expressing  wishes  and  conditions 
contrary  to  fact.  "  I  wish  I  were  there."  "  If  I  were  there,  what 
a  good  time  we  could  have."  Do  not  use  the  indicative  in  one  of 
two  parallel  clauses  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  other.  "  If  I  were 
ten  years  older  and  were  (not,  was)   as  strong  as  you." 


Number 

Each,  either,  every,  neither,  many  a,  and  similar  words  take  a 
singular  verb. 

A  subject  consisting  of  two  words  connected  by  "  or,"  "  either 
— or,"  "neither — nor,"  takes  a  singular  verb. 

Words  joined  to  the  subject  by  "with,"  "in  addition  to,"  "as 
well  as,"  or  a  similar  phrase,  are  parenthetical  and  do  not  affect 
the  number  of  the  verb. 

A  collective  noun,  when  it  refers  to  the  collection  as  a  whole, 
takes  a  singular  verb;  when  it  refers  to  the  individual  members 
of  the  collection,  it  takes  a  plural  verb. 

The  audience  was  attentive  to  the  lecture. 

The  audience  were  of  a  dozen  opinions. 


Solecisms  317 

Shall  and  Will.     Should  and  Would 

The  distinctions  in  the  uses  of  "  shall "  and  "  will "  are  unfor- 
tunately complicated,  but  they  are  much  insisted  upon  by  careful 
speakers  and  writers. 

The  auxiliaries  used  to  indicate  the  future  tense  are: 

Sing.  Plu. 

I  shall  we  shall 

you  will  you  will 

he  will  they  will 

The  auxiliaries  used  to  indicate  volition  (intention,  promise, 
or  command)  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  are: 

Sing.  Plu. 

I  will  we  will 

you  shall  you  shall 

he  shall  they  shall 

The  distinctions  between  should  and  would  are  the  same  as 
between  shall  and  will. 

The  main  difficulty  lies  in  the  first  person,  where  there  is  a 
wide-spread  tendency  to  use  will  incorrectly  instead  of  shall  to 
express  simple  futurity. 

Examples  of  Correct  Usage:  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  you  and  I 
hope  that  you  will  come  early.  I  will  return  the  book  to-mor- 
row; you  shall  not  go  to  the  trouble  to  call  for  it.  He  will  be 
there,  without  doubt;  so  shall  I.  I  promise  you  that  I  will 
come  next  week.  I  promised  that  I  would  go,  but  I  should  be 
late,  even  if  I  started  now.  He  would  be  a  model  candidate; 
we  should  all  vote  for  him. 

In  Questions,  shall  is  always  used  in  the  first  person.  With 
the  second  and  third  persons,  shall  or  will  is  used  accordingly 
as  the  one  or  the  other  may  be  expected  in  reply.  If  one  asks, 
"  Shall  you  go  ?  " — one  inquires  not  as  to  intention  or  volition 
but  simply  as  to  the  fact,  and  expects  an  answer,  "  I  shall "  or 
"  I  shall  not."  But  if  one  asks,  "  Will  you  go  to  drive  with  us?  " 
— one  expects  an  act  of  volition  expressed  in  the  answer,  "I 


3i8 


Good  Use 


will"  or  "I  will  not."  So,  "Will  they  come?"  implies  an 
answer,  "They  will"  or  "They  will  not." 

In  Indirect  Discourse,  when  the  subject  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  principal  clause,  the  auxiliary  is  used  which  would  be 
used  in  direct  discourse. 

John  says  that  he  shall  be  there.     (Direct:  I  shall  be  there.) 

I  do  not  think  that  I  will  try.     (Direct:  I  will  try.) 

He  writes  that  he  shall  come  next  week.  (Direct:  I  shall 
come.) 

They  promise  that  they  will  not  interfere.  (Direct:  We  will 
not.) 

In  all  other  cases  of  indirect  discourse,  the  auxiliary  in  a 
dependent  clause  follows  the  regular  conjugations. 

In  Conditional  Clauses  shall  or  should  is  used  in  all  persons  to 
express  simple  futurity;  will  or  would  in  all  persons  to  express 
volition.  The  auxiliaries  in  the  conclusions  to  the  conditions  fol- 
low, of  course,  the  regular  conjugations. 

Examples,  the  conditional  clauses  expressing  simple  futurity. 

If  I  should  go,  they  would  be  pleased  to  see  me. 

If  you  should  go,  I  should  (future)  be  pleased  to  see  you. 

If  you  should  go,  I  would  (promise)  meet  you. 

If  he  should  go,  we  would  meet  him. 

If  it  should  rain,  we  should  get  wet. 

Should  and  Would,  as  has  been  seen,  follow  the  rules  for  shall 
and  will,  but  they  have  some  additional  peculiarities.  Should  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  ought;  as,  "  She  should  remain 
at  home."  It  is  also  sometimes  used  in  politeness  or  to  soften 
the  force  of  a  statement ;  as,  "  I  should  not  think  so  "  (=  I  hardly 
think  so,  or  I  do  not  think  so).  Would  is  used  to  denote  a  wish; 
as,  "  Would  that  he  were  here !  " — or  to  express  habitual  action ; 
as,  "He  would  sleep  by  the  fire  after  dinner." 

The  solecisms  of  using  will  or  would  for  shall  or  should  to 
express  simple  futurity  have  been  so  frequently  condemned  that 
persons  now  often  make  the  opposite  error  and  use  shall  in  the 
first  person  to  express  volition.  In  general,  however,  the  follow- 
ing rule  is  still  a  safe  one : 

When  in  doubt  between  shall  and  will  in  the  first  person. 
Use  Shall. 


Solecisms  319 

ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 

Adjectives  go  with  nouns  or  pronouns; adverbs  with  verbs,  ad- 
jectives, and  adverbs.  After  certain  verbs — look,  sound,  feel, 
smell — there  is  some  difficulty  in  deciding  whether  to  use  a  word 
referring  to  the  subject  or  the  verb.  "  I  feel  cold,"  means  that  I 
am  cold ;  "  I  feel  coldly  toward  you,"  means  that  my  feeling  is 
cold.  So  we  say,  "  the  rose  smells  sweet ; "  "  the  boy  looks 
bright" — ^but,  "he  smelt  carefully  of  the  mixture;"  "he  looked 
brightly  at  us."  Sometimes  either  adjective  or  adverb  can  be 
used  without  any  perceptible  difference  in  the  meaning ;  as,  "  The 
piano  sounds  harsh   (or  harshly)." 

Misplaced  Adverbs.  Only  and  even  should  come  next  to  the 
words  or  expressions  that  they  qualify.  "  I  shall  read  only  a 
few  pages."  "  Even  our  teacher  thinks  that  our  class  is  a 
bright  one." 

In  general^  an  adverb  should,  if  possible,  come  next  to  the 
word  it  modifies. 

The  Cleft  Infinitive.  A  careful  writer  will  avoid  placing  an 
adverb  between  "  to  "  and  the  infinitive.  "  He  was  prepared  to 
follow  cheerfully."    Not,  "to  cheerfully  follow." 

The  Comparative  Degree  should  be  used  when  you  are  refer- 
ring to  two  objects  or  persons;  the  superlative,  when  to  more 
than  two.  "He  was  the  taller  of  the  two  brothers."  "He  was 
the  tallest  in  a  large  family  of  tall  men." 

Some  adjectives  and  adverbs  from  their  meaning  can  log- 
ically have  no  comparative  or  superlative  degrees ;  as,  "  abso- 
lutely, entirely,  extreme,  faultless,  supreme,  unparalleled,  unpre- 
cedented." By  a  kind  of  hyperbole,  however,  words  of  this  sort 
are  sometimes  used  with  the  adverbs  of  comparison,  "more, 
most,  very ;  "  so,  "  most  certain  "  "  more  complete,"  "  very  funda- 
mental," and  even  "more  perfect." 

PREPOSITIONS 

In  choosing  proper  prepositions  you  must  rely  on  your  sense 
of  good  idiom  and  your  sense  of  the  precise  meaning  you  wish  to 
express.  A  list  of  prepositions  required  with  certain  words  is 
given  in  Chapter  2Zy  page  294,  and  in  the  list  of  Improprieties  in 


320  Good  Use 

Chapter  24  there  are  cases  of  misuse:  between  for  among;  dif- 
ferent to  or  than  for  different  from;  in  for  into;  onto  for  on. 
"  At,  by,  in,  of,  to,  on,  with,"  are  used  almost  indiscriminately  by 
careless  speakers.  Usually,  however,  only  one  of  these  preposi- 
tions will  exactly  fit  in  the  sentence;  the  others  are  misfits. 


CONJUNCTIONS 

A  few  cases  of  misuse  of  conjunctions  may  be  noticed  here, 
although  they  have  nearly  all  been  included  in  the  list  of  Impro- 
prieties in  Chapter  24. 

As  is  misused  for  that.  "  I  do  not  know  that  it  is  true  " — not, 
"as  it  is  true." 

But  is  misused  where  there  is  no  antithesis. 

But  what  is  used  for  but  that.  "  I  do  not  know  but  that  it 
would  be  better"— not,  "but  what  it  would."  Perhaps  either 
"but"  or  "that"  would  be  preferable  to  "but  that." 

//  is  sometimes  used  where  though  would  be  preferable.  Note 
the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  following  sentence,  if  "  if  " 
is  substituted  for  "though":  "Though  he  is  a  republican,  he  is 
honest."  //  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  whether:  "  I  do  not 
know  whether  he  will  come."  As  though,  equivalent  to  as  if,  is 
good  idiom. 

Nor  (not,  or)  must  follow  neither. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Double  negatives  are  condemned  by  good  use  to-day. 

She  looked  but  once.    Not,  She  did  n't  look  but  once. 

I  hardly  believe  that.     Not,  I  don't  hardly  believe  that. 

It  won't  rain,  I  think.     Not,  It  won't  rain,  I  don't  think. 

Can  but  and  cannot  but  differ  in  meaning.  "  I  can  but  hope  " 
means  that  I  can  only  hope,  that  is  the  only  possibility.  "  I 
cannot  but  hope  "  means  that  I  must  hope,  though  the  alternative 
of  despair  is  suggested.  "  I  can  but  laugh,  because  there  is 
nothing  else  to  do."    "  I  cannot  but  laugh,  because  it  is  so  funny." 

The  omission  of  words  often  makes  a  construction  ungram- 
matical.  The  words  within  parentheses  in  the  following  sen- 
tences are  necessary. 


Solecisms  321 

(I)  have  received  your  letter  and  will  reply  at  length  Friday. 

Old  English  usage  differs  in  many  respects  from  (the  usage 
of)  the  present. 

I  am  as  glad  to  see  you  as  John  (is).     Or,  "as  (to  see)  John." 

He  spoke  enthusiastically  as  (he)  always  (did)  of  his  pros- 
pects. 


APPENDIXES 


APPENDIX  A 

PUNCTUATION.    CAPITALIZATION 

Punctuation  is  determined  in  part  by  Good  Use  and  in  part 
by  Good  Sense.  The  marks  of  punctuation  are  signs  which  edu- 
cated people  have  agreed  upon  in  order  to  make  what  they 
write  easier  to  read.  Their  use  is  in  some  particulars  fixed;  in 
many  others  it  is  left  to  the  good  sense  of  individual  writers. 
Absolute  rules  for  punctuation,  therefore,  cannot  be  laid  down. 
Rules  merely  indicate  the  general  practice,  to  which  there  are 
often  many  exceptions.  The  rules  that  follow  are  not  designed 
to  dictate  absolutely  how  a  writer  shall  punctuate,  but  to  indicate 
the  practice  of  a  majority  of  writers. 

The  use  of  the  different  marks  of  punctuation  is  always 
changing,  the  tendency  at  the  present  being  to  use  them  less 
than  formerly,  but  the  main  functions  of  each  remain  the  same. 
The  period  indicates  a  full  stop,  the  completion  of  a  sentence. 
The  semicolon  indicates  a  change  in  the  thought,  an  important 
stopping  place  in  the  sentence.  The  comma  indicates  a  short 
pause,  a  minor  break  in  the  sentence.  If  there  is  no  break  in 
the  thought,  no  word  or  phrase  that  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest,  there  is  no  need  of  punctuation  until  you  come  to  the 
period.  If  there  is  a  change  in  thought,  some  words  to  be  sep- 
arated from  others,  a  division  to  be  indicated  to  the  reader's 
eye,  you  will  need  a  comma,  a  semicolon,  or  possibly  a  dash, 
according  to  the  importance  or  abruptness  of  the  division. 

The  student  is  using  the  marks  of  punctuation  in  order  to 
make  what  he  writes  easier  to  read.  Examine  and  learn  the  fol- 
lowing rules  with  this  in  mind.  You  will  not  aid  the  reader  by 
scattering  commas  over  a  paragraph  as  if  from  a  pepper-box; 
and  you  will  certainly  annoy  the  reader  if  you  do  not  provide 

325 


326  Appendix  A 

many  commas  and  semicolons  to  aid  his  eye.  Above  all,  never 
omit  a  mark,  the  omission  of  which  will  make  your  meaning  in 
the  least  degree  ambiguous. 


THE  COMMA 

The  comma  separates  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  should 
be  kept  apart  in  thought.  It  usually  marks  either  some  kind  of 
parenthesis,  such  as  a  phrase  in  apposition;  or  some  kind  of 
ellipsis,  such  as  the  omission  of  a  verb;  or  some  kind  of  disjunc- 
tion, when  elements  come  together  which  are  not  closely  con- 
nected grammatically  or  logically. 

It  is  used: 

1.  To  separate  expressions  in  apposition  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence;   as,  "James,  the  brother  of  John,  came  first." 

2.  To  mark  off  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases  that  modify  not 
a  single  word  but  an  entire  phrase;  as,  however,  then,  therefore, 
moreover.  These  commas  are  sometimes  omitted,  especially  in 
short  sentences. 

3.  To  separate  all  kinds  of  parenthetical  phrases  or  clauses 
from  the  context.  If  a  phrase  or  clause  interrupts  the  thought  of 
a  sentence  without  being  necessary  to  make  complete  sense,  it 
should  usually  be  marked  off  by  commas. 

The  crumbs  and  discolorations  of  the  cannibal  feast,  as  yet 
hardly  consummated,  were  exceedingly  visible  about  his  mouth. 

Hawthorne. 

Dashes  and  marks  of  parenthesis  ()  are  also  used  to  mark  off 
parenthetical  expressions,  when  a  more  distinct  separation  from 
the  sentence  is  desired  than  that  indicated  by  commas. 

4.  To  mark  off  adverbs  that  might  be  mistaken  for  prepo- 
sitions; as,  "Above,  the  sky  was  bright." 

5.  To  separate  a  long  subject  from  its  verb. 

6.  To  mark  off  any  element  of  a  sentence  that  is  out  of  its 
natural  position. 

Of  the  plays  which  bear  the  name  of  Shakespeare  in  the  late 
editions,  the  greater  number  were  not  published  until  seven  years 
after  his  death.     {But, — ^The  greater  number  of  the  plays,  etc.) 


Punctuation  327 

Without  a  single  glance  at  the  house,  he  ran  forward.  (But, 
—He  ran  forward  without  a  single  glance,  etc.) 

7.  To  mark  the  omissions  of  words. 

English  is  the  favorite  study  of  one  half  of  the  class;  rtiathe- 
matics,  of  less  than  one  tenth. 

8.  To  separate  words,  phrases,  or  pairs  of  words  used  in 
series  without  conjunctions  to  connect  them. 

Nouns,  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  verbs  are  often  found  in 
series.  Some  writers  omit  the  comma  before  "  and  "  in  such  a 
series.  No  comma  is  used  between  two  adjectives;  as,  "It  is  a 
bright  sunny  day." 

9.  To  separate  short  quotations  from  the  context ;  as,  "  He 
cried,  'I  am  ready.'"  Or  to  separate  "he  said"  or  similar  ex- 
pressions from  the  quotation  in  which  they  are  placed. 

10.  To  separate  dependent  clauses  from  the  context  whenever 
they  are  not  closely  connected  with  adjoining  words,  especially 
in  the  following  cases: 

(a)  A  long  clause  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence. 

(b)  A  clause  introduced  by  "  as "  or  "  for,"  meaning  "  be- 
cause." 

(c)  A  parenthetical  (Rule  3),  transposed  (Rule  6),  or  a  non- 
restrictive  relative  clause  (Rule  11). 

But  commas  are  not  used  to  mark  off  short  or  closely  con- 
nected clauses,  or  clauses  beginning  with  "that." 

11.  To  separate  non-restrictive  relative  clauses  from  the  con- 
text. A  non-restrictive  relative  clause  is  one  that  adds  an  ex- 
planation or  description  to  the  substantive;  it  may  be  regarded 
as  a  parenthesis.  A  restrictive  clause  is  one  that  narrows  the 
meaning  of  the  substantive  and  cannot  be  omitted  without  de- 
stroying the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  The  two  clauses  beginning 
with  "that"  in  the  two  preceding  sentences  are  restrictive  and 
need  no  commas.  This  distinction  in  punctuation  is  important, 
because  it  may  affect  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  "  The  mem- 
bers of  the  team,  who  had  done  the  best  they  could,  were  heartily 
praised" — means  that  all  the  members  of  the  team  had  done 
their  best  and   were  praised.    Without  the  commas,  the   sen- 


328  Appendix  A 

tence  would  mean  that  only  those  members  that  had  done  their 
best  were  praised. 

12.  To  separate  independent  clauses  from  the  context;  these 
often  require  a  semicolon,  as  in  this  sentence.  "And"  and 
"but,"  connecting  clauses,  should  be  preceded  by  commas  or 
semicolons  when  there  is  a  change  of  subject;  but  (usually) 
not  when  the  verbs  in  the  two  clauses  have  the  same  subject. 

I  shall  go  down-town  this  afternoon,  and  you  can  meet  me  at 
the  post-office. 

I  shall  go  down-town  this  afternoon  and  will  meet  you  at  the 
post-office. 

THE  SEMICOLON 

The  semicolon  marks  a  greater  pause  than  the  comma  and 
indicates  a  greater  separation  between  the  elements  of  the  sen- 
tence. In  many  cases  the  question  whether  to  use  a  comma  or  a 
semicolon  depends  for  its  answer  on  the  amount  of  emphasis 
you  wish  to  put  upon  the  separation. 

The  semicolon  is  used: 

1.  To  separate  clauses  or  phrases  having  a  common  gram- 
matical dependence;  as  in  the  first  sentence  quoted  from  Ma- 
caulay,  Chapter  16,  Exercise  4. 

2.  To  separate  a  dependent  clause  from  the  context,  when  a 
more  distinct  separation  is  needed  than  the  commas  would  indi- 
cate.   See  The  Comma,  Rule  10. 

3.  To  separate  loosely  connected  independent  clauses. 
Roger  Bacon  and  Galileo  languor  in  princely  dungeons ;  Tasso 

pines  in  the  cell  of  a  mad-house;  Camoens  dies  begging  in  the 
streets  of  Lisbon. 

4.  To  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence.  See  also 
Comma,  Rule  12.  If  the  clauses  contain  commas,  semicolons 
between  the  clauses  are  necessary  for  distinct  division. 

5.  Before  "as,"  introducing  an  instance;  as  in  this  sentence. 

THE  COLON 

.     / 
The  colon  indicates  specification;  as  before  a  quotation  or  a 

series  of  particulars.     It  may  also  mark  distinct  separation  be- 
tween the  elements  of  a  sentence. 


Punctuation  329 

It  is  used: 

1.  To  introduce  a  series  of  particulars;  as  in  the  first  line  of 
this  page.     See  also  Semicolon,  Rule  5. 

2.  To  introduce  a  long  quotation.     See  also  Comma,  Rule  9. 

3.  To  separate  elements  of  a  sentence  containing  semicolons. 

THE  DASH 

The  dash  marks  an  abrupt  separation  between  the  elements  of 
a  sentence.  It  is  too  conspicuous  a  mark  to  be  used  often. 
Students  sometimes  commit  the  bad  fault  of  punctuating  largely 
by  dashes. 

It  is  used: 

1.  To  indicate  parenthesis.  Sometimes  a  single  dash  is  placed 
before  the  parenthesis  and  some  other  mark  of  punctuation  after 
it ;  sometimes  dashes  are  placed  before  and  after  the  parenthesis. 
Unless  the  separation  of  the  parenthesis  from  the  context  is  ab- 
rupt, commas  should  be  used  rather  than  dashes. 

2.  To  separate  any  element  from  its  context,  when  the 
transition  of  thought  is  abrupt.  The  dash  may  be  used  in  place 
of  the  comma,  semicolon,  or  colon,  especially  in  conversational, 
fragmentary,  or  interrupted  discourse. 

3.  With  the  comma,  semicolon,  or  colon,  (, — )  (; — )  (: — ). 
In  this  case  the  dash  adds  emphasis  to  the  other  mark. 

PARENTHESES  AND  BRACKETS 

Parentheses  ()  are  used  to  inclose  explanatory  phrases  which 
interrupt  the  sequence  of  the  thought  and  are  quite  discon- 
nected with  the  context.  The  double  dash  (see  Dash,  Rule  i)  is 
more  generally  used  than  parentheses.  The  parenthetical  marks 
are  also  used  to  inclose  examples  or  references ;  as  in  the  second 
line  above. 

Brackets  []  are  used  to  inclose  words  added,  as  in  a  transla- 
tion; or  words  to  be  omitted,  as  on  page  223. 

THE  PERIOD 

The  period  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  declarative  sentence, 
and  after  abbreviations,  numerals,  titles,  and  headings. 


330  Appendix  A 


THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT 

The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  interjections  and  ex- 
clamatory sentences.  It  is  not  used  after  "  O,"  nor  after  every 
"  oh  "  or  "  ah,"  nor  after  every  slightly  emotional  sentence. 

THE  INTERROGATION  POINT 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  after  every  direct  question. 
Sometimes  it  is  placed  directly  after  the  interrogative  part  of  a 
sentence  instead  of  at  the  end.  Inclosed  in  parentheses  (?)  it 
indicates  doubt;  as,  "Hamlet  was  written  in  1601   (?)." 

QUOTATION  MARKS 

Quotation  marks  ("  ")  inclose  quotations.  If  one  quotation 
is  made  up  of  several  paragraphs,  the  marks  may  be  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  each  paragraph,  but  at  the  end  only  of  the  last. 
If  the  quoted  passage  is  printed  in  different  type  from  the  con- 
text, marks  of  quotation  may  be  omitted.  A  quotation  within 
a  quotation  is  indicated  by  single  marks  ('  ')  ;  one  within  that  by 
double  marks.  Titles  of  books,  plays,  addresses,  periodicals  may 
be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks  or  italicized. 

Quotations  of  any  length  or  importance  should  be  accom- 
panied by  references  to  the  books  or  authors  quoted.  A  com- 
plete reference  gives  title,  author,  place  of  publication,  date,  and 
page.  A  reference  to  this  paragraph  would  be :  "  The  Elements 
of  Rhetoric  and  Composition."  A.  H.  Thorndike.  The  Cen- 
tury Co.,  New  York,  1905.     P.  330. 

THE  HYPHEN 

The  hyphen  is  used  to  join  the  parts  of  compound  words; 
and  to  divide  words,  as  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

THE  APOSTROPHE 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters,  or  of  figures;  or  to  distinguish  the  possessive  case. 
The  apostrophe  is  not  used  in  the  possessive  case  of  pronouns; 
as,  its  J  ours. 


Capitalization  331 


CAPITALS 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capitals : 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  paragraph,  chapter,  let- 
ter, and  book. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

3.  Names  of  the  Deity,  but  not  necessarily  personal  pronouns 
referring  to  the  Deity. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  bodies  of  water,  geo- 
graphical divisions,  and  the  like. 

5.  The  first  word  of  an  exact  quotation. 

6.  The  pronoun  "I"  and  the  interjection  "  O.'* 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names. 

8.  Terms  of  great  historical  importance;  as,  the  Civil  War, 
the  Renaissance. 

9.  The  names  of  political  parties,  religious  sects,  organiza- 
tions, and  the  like. 

10.  The  principal  words  in  titles  of  books,  addresses,  and  the 
like. 

11.  The  principal  words  in  official  titles.  Titles  are  usually 
capitalized  only  when  used  with  a  proper  name. 

12.  The  words.  North,  East,  South,  and  West,  when  they  re- 
fer to  sections  of  the  country. 

13.  Names  of  days,  months,  and  festivals,  but  not  of  seasons. 

14.  Words  of  special  importance,  which  the  writer  desires  to 
make  conspicuous.  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis,  for  in- 
stance, are  capitalized  in  this  book.  This  use  of  capitals  for 
emphasis  will  be  determined  by  circumstances.  In  your  school 
paper  the  name  of  your  school  should  be  capitalized;  as,  "the 
High  School,"  "in  our  Academy."  Generally,  however,  these 
words  would  not  receive  capitals.  Perhaps  the  present  tendency 
of  good  use  is  to  employ  capitals  rarely  for  emphasis  in  ordinary 
composition. 

ITALICS 

Italics  are  used  for  foreign  words,  quoted  or  specified  words, 
titles  of  books  (quotation  marks  may  be  used  for  all  these  pur- 
poses), and  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.    The  use  of  italics  for  en*- 


332  Appendix  A 

phasis  seems  to  be  decreasing.  Its  effectiveness  in  ordinary  com- 
position depends  largely  on  its  infrequency.  In  manuscript, 
words  to  be  printed  in  italics  are  underlined. 

EXERCISES 

The  best  way  to  learn  punctuation  is  by  carefully  revising 
your  themes  and  placing  a  mark  of  punctuation  wherever  one  is 
required  by  any  of  the  preceding  rules  or  wherever  one  would 
be  helpful  in  aiding  the  reader  to  perceive  quickly  the  meaning  of 
the  sentence.  In  criticizing  themes  assigned  to  you,  you  should 
always  mark  mistakes  in  punctuation. 

1.  Find  examples  in  this  book  for  each  of  the  uses  of  the 
different  marks  cited  above. 

2.  The  passage  from  Swift,  Chapter  12,  Exercise  4,  is  punctu- 
ated according  to  the  usage  of  his  time.  How  would  you  change 
the  punctuation  and  capitalization  to  suit  present  usage? 


APPENDIX  B 
ENGLISH  VERSE 

The  subject  of  English  meter  is  a  very  complicated  one  which  has  been  much 
discussed  by  scholars  with  the  result  that  there  are  many  conflicting  theories 
but  no  completely  satisfactory  system  for  the  analysis  of  the  structure  of  verse. 
The  methods  of  classifying  and  indicating  structure  followed  in  this  appendix 
are  the  simplest  and  the  most  generally  adopted.  Teachers  may  consult  Schip- 
per's  "  Handbuch  der  Englischen  Metrik,"  "  Guest's  "  History  of  English 
Rhythms,"  Mayor's  "  English  Metre,"  Oman's  *'  English  Metrists  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth and  Nineteenth  Centuries,"  and  Lanier's  "  English  Verse."  Both 
teachers  and  students  will  find  Gummere's  "  Handbook  of  Poetics"  and  Alden's 
"  English  Verse  "  of  great  practical  value. 

Meter.  Poetry  as  distinguished  from  prose  has  meter.  Meter 
is  measured  rhythm,  the  regular  recurrence  of  accented  and  un- 
accented syllables.  Certain  combinations  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables  are  called  feet,  and  a  certain  number  of  feet 
make  a  line  or  verse. 

Scansion  is  the  separation  of  a  verse  into  its  feet  and  the 
indication  of  the  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  of  each  foot. 
To  scan  a  verse,  therefore,  is  to  indicate  its  metrical  structure. 

Evidently  scansion  will  not  show  all  the  qualities  which  make 
up  the  rhythm  of  poetry.  We  speak  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables,  but  there  are  many  degrees  of  accentuation.  In  any 
line,  or  in  almost  any  word,  as  "  magisterial,"  there  are  various 
degrees  of  stress  on  different  syllables.  Again,  the  time  occur- 
ring between  accented  syllables  will  not  be  exactly  the  same  and 
may  vary  greatly.  Again,  differences  in  quantity  or  pitch  of  syl- 
lables affect  the  rhythm  of  the  verse.  Again,  the  pauses  and  the 
emphasis  necessitated  by  the  sense  modify  the  rhythmical  effect. 
All  these  elements  may  be  noted  as  of  importance  in  the  actual 
effect  of  verse  in  expressive  reading,  but  no  method  has  been 
devised  for  their  complete  analysis.    Scansion  is  only  a  method 

333 


334  Appendix  B 

for  indicating  the  most  marked  structural  elements.  It  some- 
times results  in  a  kind  of  singsong,  which  is  not  the  way  to  read 
poetry.  Poetry  should  be  read  with  a  feeling  for  both  its 
rhythm  and  its  meaning.  But,  while  the  division  into  feet  and 
lines  does  not  indicate  the  whole  rhythm  of  verse,  it  does  in- 
dicate essential  elements  of  this  rhythm.  Some  study  of  scan- 
sion is  therefore  necessary  if  one  is  to  have  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  poetry. 

KINDS  OF  FEET 

A  foot  is  a  group  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  An 
accented  syllable  is  conveniently  indicated  by  an  accent  ';  an 
unaccented  by  a  cross  \  There  are  many  kinds  of  feet,  four  of 
which  are  common  in  English  verse:  the  iambus  or  iamb  {^0, 
the  trochee  (/x),  the  anapest  (x^O,  and  the  dactyl  (/^x). 
Less  common  is  the  spondee  (//). 

The  iambus  consists  of  an  unaccented  followed  by  an  accented 
syllable  (x^). 

X  /  X  /  X  /  X  /  X  / 

How  soon  I  hath  Time, !  the  sub  ]  tie  thief  |  of  youth. 

The  trochee  consists  of  an  accented  followed  by  an  unaccented 
syllable. 

/  X  /  X  /X  /  X 

Westward,  |  westward,  |  Hia  |  watha ! 

The  anapest  consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables  followed  by 
an  accented  syllable. 

xx/x         X  /  xx/xx/ 

And  his  co  |  horts  were  gleam  |  ing  in  pur  [  pie  and  gold. 

The  dactyl  consists  of  an  accented  syllable  followed  by  two 
unaccented  syllables. 

/  XX  /XX  /  XX  /xx 

Naught  but  tra  \  dition  re  |  mains  of  the  ]  beautiful  | 

/xx/x 
village  of  |  Grand-Pre. 

Only  a  few  variations  from  ordinary  pronunciation  are  per- 
missible in  verse.    Most  of  these  are  due  to  slight  changes  in 


English  Verse  335 

the  stress  on  certain  syllables.  Some  words,  as  "heavens,"  may  be 
pronounced  as  one  syllable  or  two  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  meter.  In  other  words,  such  as  "misery"  or  "majesty,"  the 
unaccented  second  vowel  may  be  unpronounced.  In  other  cases 
a  syllable  usually  unaccented  may  receive  the  accent.  There  are 
indeed  many  monosyllabic  words  which  may  be  accented  or  un- 
accented according  to  the  requirements  of  the  meter,  as  in  the 
following, 

/       X  /  X  /        X  / 

Not  a  I  note  does  |  he  com  |  plain 
/       X        /  X  /  X  / 

But  he  I  feels  the  |  storm's  re  |  f rain. 

Elision  may  occur  between  the  final  vowel  of  one  word  and 
the  initial  vowel  of  the  following.  So  we  may  have  either  "  thou 
art"  or  "thou  'rt,"  "the  old"  or  " th'  old." 


KINDS  OF  VERSE 

A  verse  or  line  is  composed  of  one  or  more  feet  and  is  named, 
first,  from  its  prevailing  foot,  iambic,  trochaic,  anapestic,  dactylic ; 
and,  second,  from  the  number  of  feet  in  the  line.  A  verse  of 
one  foot  is  called  a  monometer;  one  of  two  feet  a  dimeter;  of 
three  feet  a  trimeter;  of  four,  a  tetrameter;  of  five,  a  penta- 
meter; of  six,  a  hexameter;  of  seven,  a  heptameter.  A  verse 
with  four  iambic  feet  is  an  iambic  tetrameter.  So  we  have 
iambic  pentameter,  anapestic  dimeter,  dactylic  hexameter,  etc. 
In  the  following  iambic  lines  from  Herrick's  poem  "  To  Daffo- 
dils," the  first  and  third  are  monometers,  the  second,  fourth  and 
sixth  are  trimeters  and  the  fifth  is  a  tetrameter. 

We  die 
As  your  hours  do,  and  dry 

Away, 
Like  to  the  summer's  rain; 
Or  as  the  pearls  of  morning's  dew. 
Ne'er  to  be  found  again. 

Examples  of  the  various  kinds  of  verse  will  be  found  on 
pages  336,  337. 


336  Appendix  B 

VARIATIONS  IN  FEET  AND  VERSE 

In  iambic  verse  the  prevailing  foot  is  an  iambus,  but  other  feet 
may  occasionally  be  substituted  without  changing  the  character 
of  the  rhythm.  The  iambus  and  the  anapest  may  be  readily 
interchanged.  The  substitution  of  one  for  the  other  involves 
no  change  in  the  position  of  the  accented  syllables,  but  merely 
one  unaccented  syllable  more  or  less.  In  the  following  iambic 
lines,  for  example,  an  anapest  is  substituted  for  an  iambus  in  the 
third  foot  of  the  first  line. 

X  /  x/xx/x  / 

They  chain'd  |  us  each  |  to  a  col  |  umn  stone. 

And  we  were  three — ^yet,  each  alone. 

In  the  following  anapestic  lines  an  iambus  is  several  times  sub- 
stituted for  an  anapest. 

xx/xx/xx  /  X  /  X  /  X 

For    I    trust  |  if    an   en  |  emy's    fleet  |  came    yon  ]  der    round  |  by 
X        / 
the  hill, 

XX/X/XX/  XX  /  XX 

And   the   rush  |  ing  bat  |  tie-bolt   sang  |  from   the   three-  [  decker 

/  X       X  / 

out  I  of  the  foam. 

Trochees  and  dactyls  may  be  readily  interchanged,  for  here 
again  the  substitution  involves  no  change  in  the  position  of  the 
accented  syllables,  but  merely  one  accented  syllable  more  or  less 
in  the  foot.  Note  the  frequent  substitution  of  trochees  for 
dactyls  in  the  following  lines  from  "  Evangeline," 

/X/X  X  /XX/  X  /  XX  /x 

Firmly  |  builded  with  |  rafters  of  |  oak,  the  |  house  of  the  j  farmer 

/XX  /XX/X  /XX  /  XX 

Stood  on  the  i  side  of  a  |  hill  com  |  manding  the  |  sea ;  and  a  | 
/     X 
shady 

/XX  /XX  /  XX/  X  /x 

Sycamore  |  grew  by  the  |  door,  with  a  |  woodbine  |  wreathing 

X  /  X 

a  I  round  it. 

The  interchange  of  the  dactyl  and  the  anapest  or  of  the  trochee 
and  iambus  involves  a  change  in  the  positions  of  the  accented 
syllables  and  is  infrequent  except  at  the  beginning. of  a  line. 


English  Verse  337 

In  the  first  foot  of  an  iambic  line,  however,  a  trochee  fre- 
quently occurs,  as  in  the  first  and  third  lines  of  the  following : 

Break  off,  break  off,  I  feel  the  different  pace 
Of  some  chaste  footing  near  about  this  ground. 
Run  to  your  shrouds,  within  these  brakes  and  trees; 

Milton:  Comus. 

Unaccented  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  line  or  occasionally  in  the 
middle  may  frequently  be  omitted  or  added  without  affecting  the 
general  structure.  A  verse  that  ends  with  an  incomplete  foot  is 
called  catalectic,  and  the  absence  of  the  unaccented  syllable  may 
be  indicated  by  a  caret.  Thus,  in  the  following  stanza  the  verse 
is  trochaic  trimeter  and  the  second  and  fourth  lines  are  catalectic. 

Hail  to  thee,  blithe  Spirit! 
Bird  thou  never  wert, 
That  from  heaven,  or  near  it, 
Pourest  thy  full  heart 
In  profuse  strains  of  unpremeditated  art. 

Shelley:    The  Skylark. 

In  an  iambic  line  an  unaccented  syllable  at  the  end  does  not 
affect  the  structure  and  is  usually  called  an  extra  syllable  and 
the  verse  is  called  hypermetrical* 

X  /  X  /  X  /  X       /  X  /         X 

And,  like  1  the  base  |  less  fab  |  ric  of  |  this  vi  |  sion. 

Rests.  The  absence  of  a  portion  of  a  foot  sometimes  coincides 
with  an  abrupt  break  in  the  sense.  This  may  be  regarded  as 
analogous  to  a  rest  in  music.  The  pause  made  in  reading  may 
be  said  to  take  the  place  of  the  omitted  portions  of  the  foot. 

X         /  X        /  X        / 

Break,  |  break,  |  break, 

X       X  /  X  /  X        / 

On  thy  cold  |  gray  stones,  |  O  sea ! 

Apparent  irregularities  in  structure  can  often  be  explained  by 
taking  into  consideration  the  necessary  rests  or  pauses. 

22 


338  Appendix  B 


CESURA 

Most  verses  are  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  metrical  pause 
called  the  cesura,  which  often  coincides  with  a  pause  in  the 
sense.  It  is  indicated  by  the  symbol  ||.  Its  position  varies  in 
different  kinds  of  verse,  and  often  in  verses  of  the  same  structure. 

But,  O  the  heavy  change,  1 1  now  thou  art  gone. 
Now  thou  art  gone,  1 1  and  never  must  return ! 
Thee,  shepherd,  1 1  thee  the  woods  and  desert  caves. 


RHYME 

Rhyme  is  the  regular  correspondence  of  the  sounds  of  differ- 
ent words.  It  is  generally  used  in  reference  to  similar  sounds  at 
the  ends  of  lines  in  verse.  Rhyme  is  wholly  a  matter  of  sound 
and  not  of  spelling.  It  should  be  perfect;  that  is,  the  words 
should  agree  exactly  in  their  vowel  sounds  and  in  the  sounds  of 
the  consonants  following  the  vowels,  but  not  of  the  consonant 
sounds  preceding  the  vowels.  Rhyming  syllables  must  also  have 
like  accent.     Examples  of  imperfect  and  incorrect  rhyming  are: 

Door,  boor;  love,  Jove;  bring,  twinge;  bow,  bough;  thee, 
clearly;  angel,  bell;  seen,  scene;  stir,  mutter. 

When  the  rhyming  syllables  are  complete  monosyllabic  words 
or  final  accented  syllables,  the  rhyme  is  called  single  or  mas- 
culine. 

Win,  pin;  thus,  discuss;  might,  flight;  raise,  praise;  say, 
obey;  believe,  receive;  destroy,  annoy;  dear,  cavalier. 

When  the  rhyming  syllables  include  both  an  accented  syllable 
and  a  following  unaccented  syllable,  the  rhyme  is  called  double  or 
feminine. 

Setting,  forgetting ;  splendid,  attended ;  affections,  recollections ; 
dwelling,  swelling. 

When  the  rhyming  syllables  include  an  accented  syllable  and 
two  following  unaccented  syllables  the  rhyme  is  called  triple. 

Locality,  banality;  furious,  injurious;  importunate,  unfor- 
tunate. 


English  Verse  339 


BLANK  VERSE 

Blank  verse,  is  verse  without  rhyme.  The  term  is  generally 
restricted  to  unrhymed  iambic  pentameter,  like  that  of  Milton 
and  Shakespeare. 


x/  x/x/  x/  x/ 

He  spake ;  1 1  and  to  |  confirm  |  his  words,  |  out-flew 

/xx/x  /  /  xx/ 

Millions  |  of  flam  |  ing  swords,  1 1  drawn  from  |  the  thighs 

x/x/x/  x/x/ 

Of  migh  I  ty  cher  |  ubim;  ||  the  sud  |  den  blaze 

X         /  x/x  /  /xx/ 

Far  round  |  illu  \  mined  hell :  1 1  highly  |  they  raged 
x/x/x  x/  x/x/ 

Against  |  the  High  |  est,  1 1  and  fierce  |  with  grasp  |  ed  arms 

/  X  X  /  X  /  X  /  X  / 

Clash'd  on  |  their  sound  |  ing  shields  1 1  the  din  |  of  war, 

/xx/x  /  X  /  X  / 

Hurling  |  defi  |  ance  |  \  toward  |  the  vault  ]  of  heaven. 

Milton:  Paradise  Lost. 


In  the  preceding  quotation  there  is  no  pause  at  the  end  of  the 
first  or  second  lines.  These  are  called  "  run-on  lines."  The  last 
two  lines  have  pauses  at  the  end  and  are  "  end-stopt  lines."  The 
third  and  fifth  are  also  end-stopt ;  the  fourth,  run-on.  An  inter- 
mixture of  these  two  classes  is  necessary  to  avoid  disagreeable 
monotony.  Run-on  and  end-stopt  lines,  of  course,  occur  in 
rhymed  poetry  as  well  as  in  blank  verse.  It  will  also  be  noted 
that  variety  of  effect  is  obtained  in  this  selection  by  the  different 
positions  of  the  cesura.  The  structure  of  blank  verse  is  also 
varied  by  the  use  of  an  extra  or  hypermetrical  syllable  at  the 
end  of  the  line.  Such  eleven  syllable  lines  are  sometimes  called 
feminine. 

In  dramatic  blank  verse  the  structure  is  especially  varied.  In 
the  following  quotation  from  Shakespeare,  the  intermingling  of 
end-stopt  and  run-on  lines,  the  varying  position  of  the  cesura,  and 
the  use  of  feminine  endings,  are  all  exemplified. 


340  Appendix  B 


X         / 

We  fail! 
XX  xxx/x/xx 

But  screw  |  your  cour  |  age  1 1  to  1  the  stick  |  ing-place 

x/  x/  X  /x/x/ 

And  we  '11 1  not  fail.  1 1  When  Ehin  j  can  is  |  asleep — 

x/x/x  /x/  x/  X 

Whereto  |  the  ra  |  ther  ||  shall  j  his  day's  |  hard  jour  |  ney 

/  X         X     /  X  /  ^  '  X  / 

Soundly  |  invite  j  him —  1 1  his  |  two  cham  |  berlains 

x/         X        /         X        /x/x/ 
Will  1 1 1  with  wine  |  and  was  |  sail  so  ]  convince 

X        /x/        X        /         x/x        / 
That  mem  |  ory,  1 1  the  ward  |  er  of  |  the  brain, 

x/x/  X         /x/x/x 

Shall  be  |  a  fume,  1 1  and  the  1  receipt  |  of  rea  |  son 
x/         x/x  /x         /x/ 

A  lim  I  beck  on  |  ly.  1 1  When  |  in  swin  |  ish  sleep 

X  /  x/x  /x/x/ 

Their  drench  J  ed  na  1  tures  1 1  lie  |  as  in  [  a  death, 

x/         x/        x/x/  x/ 

What  can  \  not  you  |  and  1 1  perform  |  upon 
z' — \       /x/x  /x/x/ 

The  unguard  |  ed  Dun  |  can  ?  1 1  what  |  not  put  |  upon 

x/x/xx  /x/x  / 

His  spon  j  gy  of  I  ficers,  1 1  who  |  shall  bear  |  the  guilt 
x/x  / 

Of  our  J  great  quell?  Macbeth,  I,  vii.  55^7?. 


COUPLETS 

A  group  of  two  rhymed  lines  of  the  same  metrical  structure  is 
a  couplet.  The  commonest  couplets  are  the  heroic  or  pentameter, 
and  the  short  or  tetrameter,  but  there  are  many  other  kinds. 

I.  The  heroic  or  ten-syllable  couplet  consists  of  two  iambic 
pentameters.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  English  meters  and 
is  found  in  many  Ox  Chaucer's  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  in  most  of 
the  poems  of  Dryden,  Pope,  Goldsmith  and  frequently  in  later 
writers. 

But  most  by  numbers  judge  a  poet's  song. 
And  smooth  or  rough,  with  them  is  right  or  wrong: 
In  the  bright  Muse,  tho'  thousand  charms  conspire. 
Her  voice  is  all  these  tuneful  fools  admire. 

Pope:  Essay  on  Criticism. 


English  Verse  341 

2,  The  short  or  eight-syllable  couplet  consists  of  two  iambic 
tetrameters.  It  has  been  much  used  since  the  early  Middle  Ages, 
especially  in  narrative  verse.  It  is  used  in  Burns's  "  Tam 
O'Shanter,"  Scott's  "  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,"  "  Marmion  "  and 
"  Lady  of  the  Lake."  It  is  sometimes  named  Hudibrastic,  because 
of  its  use  in  Butler's  satire  "  Hudibras." 

Ill  fared  it  then  with  Roderick  Dhu 
That  on  the  field  his  targe  he  threw, 
Whose  brazen  studs  and  tough  bull-hide 
Had  death  so  often  dash'd  aside; 
For,  train'd  abroad  his  arms  to  wield 
Fitz-James's  blade  was  sword  and  shield.  .  . 
Three  times  in  closing  strife  they  stood. 
And  thrice  the  Saxon  blade  drank  blood; 
No  stinted  draught,  no  scanty  tide, 
The  gushing  flood  the  tartans  dyed. 

Scott:  The  Lady  of  the  Lake, 


STANZAS 

A  stanza  is  a  group  of  three  or  more  verses.  Stanzas  of  the 
same  poem  usually  have  the  same  structure.  The  number  of 
varieties  of  stanza  is  practically  unlimited.  Only  a  few  of  the 
most  used  kinds  are  noticed  here.  The  arrangement  of  rhymes 
is  indicated  by  the  use  of  letters;  thus  aabb  represents  a  stanza 
of  four  verses,  the  first  rhyming  with  the  second,  and  the  third 
with  the  fourth. 

Three-line  Stanza.  Three-line  stanzas  or  triplets  often  occur  in 
verse  written  mainly  in  couplets.  They  also  appear  as  regular 
stanzas  in  various  forms.  The  following  from  Longfellow  is 
trochaic  tetrameter  catalectic,  rhyming  aaa. 

Like  the  swell  of  some  sweet  tune, 
Morning  rises  into  noon, 
May  glides  onward  into  June. 

Quatrains.  Quatrains,  or  four-line  stanzas,  are  found  in  many 
variations. 


342  Appendix  B 

1.  Alternating  rhyme  abab.    Iambic  tetrameter. 

Mine  be  a  cot  beside  the  hill ; 
A  beehive's  hum  shall  soothe  my  ear; 
A  willowy  brook  that  turns  a  mill, 
With  many  a  fall  shall  linger  near. 

Samuel  Rogers:  A   Wish. 

2.  Alternating  rhyme  abab.  The  first  and  third  lines,  iambic 
tetrameters;  the  second  and  fourth,  iambic  trimeters.  In  the 
second  example  only  the  second  and  fourth  lines  rhyme.  This  is 
the  "  Ballad  stanza,"  so  called  because  much  used  in  the  early 
ballads. 

I  come  from  haunts  of  coot  and  hern, 

I  make  a  sudden  sally, 
And  sparkle  out  among  the  fern, 

To  bicker  down  a  valley. 

Tennyson:  The  Brook. 

Thej-e  lived  a  wife  at  Usher's  Well, 

And  a  wealthy  wife  was  she; 
She  had  three  stout  and  stalwart  sons. 

And  sent  them  o'er  the  sea. 

The  Wife  of  Usher's  Well. 

3.  Quatrain  of  iambic  pentameters,  rhyming  alternately  abab. 
This  is  the  stanza  of  Gray's  "  Elegy,"  and  is  known  as  "  Elegiac 
measure." 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Gray:  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 

4.  Quatrain,  rhyming  abha,  iambic  tetrameters.  The  stanza  of 
Tennyson's  "In  Memoriam." 


English  Verse  343 

I  hold  it  true,  whate'er  befall; 

I  feel  it  when  I  sorrow  most; 

'T  is  better  to  have  loved  and  lost, 
Than  never  to  have  loved  at  all. 

Tennyson:  In  Memoriam. 

Five  and  Six  Line  Stanzas,  The  following  examples  illustrate 
a  few  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  five  and  six  line  stanzas. 

1.  Six  line  stanza,  octo-syllabic,  iambic,  rhyming  ababcc. 

The  tumult  and  the  shouting  dies — 

The  Captains  and  the  Kings  depart — 

Still  stands  thine  ancient  sacrifice. 
An  humble  and  a  contrite  heart. 

Lord  God  of  Hosts,  be  with  us  yet. 

Lest  we  forget — lest  we  forget. 

Kipling;  Recessional. 

2.  Six  line  stanza;  first,  second,  third  and  fifth  lines  are  iambic 
tetrameter,  with  an  additional  unaccented  syllable;  fourth  and 
sixth  lines  are  iambic  dimeter,  with  additional  unaccented  syl- 
lable.   All  the  rhymes  are  feminine,  aaabab. 

Oh,  wad  some  power  the  giftie  gie  us 
To  see  oursel's  as  ithers  see  us! 
It  wad  frae  monie  a  blunder  free  us 

An'  foolish  notion: 
What  airs  in  dress  an'  gait  wad  lea'e  us, 

An'  e'en  devotion! 

Burns:  To  a  Louse  on  a  Lady's  Bonnet. 

3.  Five  line  stanza,  first  four  lines  are  trochaic  trimeter,  the 
fifth  an  Alexandrian  (iambic  hexameter).     Rhyme  is  ababb. 

In  the  golden  lightning 
Of  the  sunken  sun 
O'er  which  clouds  are  brightening, 
Thou  dost  float  and  run, 
Like  an  unbodied  joy  whose  race  is  just  begun. 

Shelley:  The  Skylark. 


344  Appendix  B 

Longer  Stanzas.  "Rhyme  royal"  is  a  seven  line  stanza  of  iambic 
pentameters,  rhyming  ababbcc.  "Ottava  rima"  (see  Keats'  "Isa- 
bella") is  a  stanza  of  iambic  pentameters,  rhyming  abababcc.  The 
Spenserian  stanza  was  first  used  in  Spenser's  "Faery  Queen,"  and 
later  in  many  English  poems,  including  Byron's  "Childe  Harold," 
Keats'  "Eve  of  St.  Agnes,"  Tennyson's  "The  Lotos  Eaters." 
It  is  a  nine  line  stanza,  rhyming  ababbcbcc,  all  iambic  penta- 
meters, except  the  last,  which  is  an  Alexandrine,  iambic  hex- 
ameter (x/  I  x/  I  x/  II  x/  I  x/  I  x/). 

A  gentle  Knight  was  pricking  on  the  plaine, 
Ycladd  in  mightie  armes  and  silver  shielde. 
Wherein  old  dints  of  deepe  woundes  did  remaine, 
The  cruell  markes  of  many  a  bloody  fielde; 
Yet  armes  till  that  time  did  he  never  wield, 
His  angry  steede  did  chide  his  foming  bitt, 
As  much  disdayning  to  the  curbe  to  yield : 
Full  jolly  knight  he  seemd,  and  faire  did  sitt, 
As  one  for  knightly  giusts  and  fierce  encounters  fitt. 

Spenser:  The  Faery  Queen,  Bk.  I,  11.  1-9. 


THE  SONNET 

The  sonnet  is  a  complete  poem  of  fourteen  iambic  penta- 
meters. In  the  strict  or  Petrarchian  form,  the  verses  are  divided 
into  two  groups — the  octave  (the  first  eight  verses),  and  the 
sextet  (the  last  six  verses).  The  octave  has  two  rhymes  ar- 
ranged abba  abba.  The  sextet  has  two  or  three  rhymes,  differ- 
ent from  those  of  the  octave  and  arranged  cdcdcd  or  cdecde. 

ON   FIRST   LOOKING  INTO  CHAPMAN'S    HOMER 

Much  have  I  traveled  in  the  realms  of  gold 
And  many  goodly  states  and  kingdoms  seen; 
Round  many  western  islands  have  I  been 
Which  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  hold. 
Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 
That  deep-browed  Homer  ruled  as  his  demesne: 
Yet  did  I  never  breathe  its  pure  serene 


English  Verse  345 

Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold : 
Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken; 
Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific — and  all  his  men 
Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise — 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 

Keats. 

Shakespeare's  sonnets  are  divided  rather  into  three  quatrains 
and  a  couplet,  rhyming  abab  cdcd  efef  gg. 

EXERCISES 

Scansion  may  be  studied  in  any  English  poetry ;  blank  verse  in 
Shakespeare  and  Milton,  stanzaic  structure  in  the  poems  of  Lowell, 
Bryant,  Holmes,  Tennyson,  Wordsworth  and  others.  Poems 
like  Wordsworth's  "Ode  on  Immortality,"  or  Matthew  Arnold's 
"Forsaken  Merman,"  with  a  varied  arrangement  of  rhymes  and 
lines  of  irregular  length,  may  be  made  the  objects  of  special  study. 

Practice  in  writing  verse  gives  useful  training  in  writing  prose. 
It  requires  skill  in  selecting  words  and  in  forming  phrases  and 
sentences,  and  may  develop  a  sense  of  the  value  of  sound  and 
rhythm  in  style.  The  student  should  begin  with  simple  measures, 
as  the  rhyming  couplet,  or  the  ballad  stanza.  His  prose  themes 
may  be  recast  into  verse,  or  new  themes  written  in  verse.  Later, 
more  difficult  stanzaic  forms  may  be  attempted. 


/ 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Names  of  persons  or  publications  are  in  small  capitals ;  words  and  phrases, 
in  italics;  titles  of  themes  or  articles,  inclosed  in  quotation-marks.  In  gen- 
eral, the  exercises  are  indexed  only  for  authors. 


Abbreviations,  8,  300 

Ablative   absolute,   295 

"  A   Child's   Play-house,"    125 

Addison,  58,  69,  204,  205,  206; 
quoted,  ii,  244,  269;  exercises,  10, 
100,    140,    164,   244 

Adjectives,  too  many,  281;  for  ad- 
verbs, 294,  319;  pronouns  as, 
used   for  connectives,   43 

Adverbs,  superfluous,  281 ;  for  ad- 
jectives, 319;  misplaced,  319; 
punctuation,   326 

"A   Good   Note   Book,"  73 

Alfred,   King,   287 

Ambiguity,  of  pronouns,  207;  of 
participles,  207;  of  clauses,  209; 
m  punctuation,  326,  327 

Americanisms,    288 

Amplification,  methods  in  para- 
graphs, 52-68;  in  longer  themes, 
128—140;    in    sentences.    188 

and,  overused  as  connective,  42,  193, 
208,  236 

"  A  New  England  Hill  Town," 
quoted,    120,    122 

Anglicisms,    288 

Anglo-Saxon,  words  from,  255,  258, 
287 

"An   Old  Oak,"    125 

Antecedent,  omitted,  206;  implied, 
207 

Anticlimax,    225 

Antithesis,    267 

Apostrophe,   266 

"A    Ramble,"    154 

Argument,  in  paragraph,  59;  in 
themes  of  two  paragraphs,  71.  74— 
78;    in   longer  themes,    105,    128 

Arnold,   Matthew,  exercises,   164 

Arrangement  of  material,  governed 
by  coherence,  17;  by  emphasis, 
18;  in  the  paragraph.  37-40;  in 
themes  of  two  paragraphs,  70;  in 
exposition,  72—74;  in  argument, 
76,  77;  in  description,  87,  88;  in 
narrative,  93;  in  plans,  107-110; 
varieties  of,  109,  no;  in  sen- 
tences,    174,     200—203,     209,     210, 


221-225.     See  Coherence,   Logical 
order.  Order  of  words.  Plan 
as,  inexact  use  of,  208,   320 
Austen,   Jane,   95;   quoted,    14;   ex- 
ercises,  124 

Bacon,  Francis,  quoted,  244,  269; 
exercises,   244 

Balanced    sentences,    221 

Barbarisms,  300 

Beauty,  a  quality  of  style,  6;  in 
sentences,    234-253 

Beginning,  emphatic,  18;  of  a  para- 
graph, 38-40,  44,  45,  46,  52;  of  a 
narrative,  93;  of  a  paragraph  as  a 
connective,  144-146;  of  a  theme, 
118— 121,  176;  of  a  sentence,  deter- 
mined by  coherence,  201,  202;  of 
a  sentence,  determined  by  empha- 
sis,  221—226 

Besant,   Sir  Walter,   quoted,   65 

Bible,   135,    136,  241,  276,   287,  288 

Blackmore,  R.  D.,  quoted,  90;  ex- 
ercises,  104 

Blank   verse,    238 

both,  and,  210 

"  British  Naval  Manoeuvres,"   120 

BrontE,  Charlotte,  quoted  in  exer- 
cise,  276 

Brougham,   quoted   in   exercise,   274 

Browning,   exercise,   30 

Burke,  5,  6,  71,  175,  176;  quoted, 
S3,  126,  245,  272,  274;  exercises, 
115,  126,  216,  229,  245,  258,  272, 
274 

Burns,   exercises,   100 

Burroughs,    John,    164 

but,  as  connective,  42,  193,  208,  236, 

^320 

Byron,  exercises,  30 

can  but,   cannot  but,   320 

"  Canning  Peaches,"  73 

Capitalization,   221,    331 

Carlyle,    76,    88,    290;    quoted,    59, 

224,  229,  246;  exercises,  166,  229, 

246,  274,  276 


349 


350 


Index 


Cause  and  effect,  in  development 
of  paragraph,  6i,  68 

Change  of  person,  314 

Change  of  subject,  211 

Change  of  tense,  3^5  ,      „ 

••  Character  of   Macaulay,      73 

Chaucer,  287;  exercises,  290 

Chronological  order,  in  paragraphs, 
37,  60,  61;  in  description,  87;  in 
narrative,  93.  96;  in  long  themes, 
108,   109,    145.   148 

"  Circus  Parade,"  125 

Clauses,  connecting,  202,  224;  inqe- 
pendent  or  coordinate,  172,  i73. 
187,  193,  236,  328;  dependent  or 
subordinate,  172,  190,  327.  328; 
ambiguity  of,  209;  end  of,  a 
place    for   emphasis,    224 

Clearness,    quality    of   style,    6 

Cleft  infinitive,  319 

Climax,  in  narratives,  94;  in  plan, 
112;  as  means  of  development, 
129,  135;  for  emphasis,  225; 
figure,  266 

Coherence,  principle  of,  defined,  17; 
in  single  paragraph,  37-44;  in  ex- 
position, 72;  in  argument,  75;  in 
description,  87,  88;  in  narrative, 
93;  in  plans,  107—110;  at  begin- 
ning, 118,  119;  in  development  of 
theme,  133;  in  paragraphing 
theme,  108,  109,  145,  148;  in  sen- 
tences, 200-^219;  rules  for,  206—211 

Comparison,  in  development  of  par- 
agraph,   57;    of    adjectives,    319 

Complex   sentences,    172,    187—192 

Composition,  problems  of,  4;  de- 
fined, 8;  units  of,  9;  material  for, 
22-26;  processes  of,   157,   158 

Compositions,     See    Subjects    and 
Themes 

Compound  sentences,  172,  187,  236, 
328,  329 

Conciseness,  226,  235,  236-238,  280— 
283 

Conclusion,    121,    ifi2.     See  End 

Confusion  of  "  its,"  207 

Conjunctions,  as  connectives,  42; 
misuse  of,  320.  See  Connectives; 
and,  but 

Connectives,  list  of,  42;  purpose  of, 
43;  between  sentences  in  a  para- 
graph, 40-44;  between  para- 
graphs, 134,  144-146;  between 
words,  phrases,  clauses,  203-206, 
208,  209;  exact  use  of,  203-206, 
208,  209,  236,  238,  320;  adjectiye 
pronouns  as,  43;  conjunctions  as, 
42;  nouns  and  pronouns  as,  43; 
phrases  as,  42,  134;  clauses  as, 
202,  224;  sentences  as,  41,  134, 
144-146;  and,  but  as,  42,  208,  236 

Construction,  change  of,  needless, 
210,    211;    for    emphasis,    222 


Contrast,    in    development    of    para- 
graph, 57  ,  .  , 
Conversation,   paragraphing  of,    141, 

142  .  ,, 

Cooper,    exercises,    100,    124,    100 
Correspondents,  210 

Darwin,  56,  57.  7i;  quoted,  54;  ex- 
ercises,   258,    259 

Declarative  sentences,    179 

Definition,  in  development  of  para- 
graph, 53;  in  exposition,  72;  in 
argument,    74.    75 

Defoe,    quoted    in    exercises,    180 

Dependent  clauses,   172,   190,   327. 
328 

Derivation    of    words,    255.    287      . 

Description,  in  paragraphs,  60;  in 
themes  of  two  paragraphs,  70,  71, 
84-91,  96-104;  arrangement  of,  in 
longer  themes,  109;  development 
of,  in  longer  themes,  1 28-1 31 ;  sug- 
gestive words  in,  257,  258,  269-271 

Details,  in  development  of  para- 
graph, 54;  in  description,  85-87 

Dickens,  56,  88,  95,  240;  quoted, 
55,  27s;  exercises,  100,  164,  166, 
183,  275  „    ,      . 

Diction.  See  Barbarisms,  Impro- 
prieties,   Solecisms,    Words 

Dictionary,   use  of,    10,    15,   254,   289 

different  from,  288,  293 

Diffuseness,    226,    237,    281,    282 

Digressions,    130 

Disagreement  in  number,  207 

Discrimination  in  use  of  words,  256 

done  up,   293 

Double  negative,   288,   320 

Double  possessive,   293 

each,   314,   316 

each  other,   314 

Earle,  John,  quoted,   81 

either,    314,    316;    either,    or,    210 

Elaboration,    for    emphasis,    135 

Eliot,  George,  exercises,  97,  140, 
164 

Emerson,   83;   quoted  in  exercise, 
247 

Ernphasis,  principle  of,  defined,  18; 
in  single  paragraph,  44,  45;  in 
exposition,  72',  in  description,  88; 
in  narrative,  94;  in  plan  of  longer 
theme,  no— 112;  in  beginning  of 
theme,  118;  in  end  of  theme,  121, 
122;  in  development  of  theme, 
134-136;  in  sentences,  220-233; 
capitals  used  for,  331;  italics  used 
for,  332 

End,  emphatic,  18;  of  a  paragraph, 
44-47,  61;  of  an  argument,  77;  of 
a  narrative,  93;  of  a  plan  for  a 
longer  theme,  112;  of  a  theme, 
118,  121,  122,  146;  of  a  sentence. 


Index 


351 


determined  by  emphasis,  221-225; 
of  a  clause,  224 

Euphony,  239 

Evelyn,  John,  quoted  in  exercise, 
i8i 

every,    314,    316 

Examples,  in  development  of  para- 
graph,   56;    in   exposition,    73 

Exclamation,  266 

Exclamative  sentences,    179 

Explanation,  in  development  of  par- 
agraph, 53;  exposition  another 
name    for,    71.     See    Exposition 

Exposition,  in  themes  of  two  para- 
graphs, 70-74;  with  argument,  74— 
78;  with  narrative,  96;  in  longer 
theme,   105,    109,    no,    128,    130 

Figures  of  speech,  264-277 

Fine   writing,    280 

FisKE,   John,   95,    164 

Force,   a  quality  of  style,   6 

Foreign   words,    300 

Forms  of  prose,  four  distinguished, 
70,  71 ;  in  themes  of  two  para- 
graphs, 69-104;  in  longer  themes, 
105;    development   of,    129 

for   to,   288 

Fragmentary  sentences,    172,    192, 
193 

Franklin,  quoted,  41 

Froude,  quoted,   138;  exercises,   137 

Gaskell,  Mrs.,  quoted,  120;  exer- 
cises,   124,    166 

General   words,   256,   257 

Gibbon,   60,   85;   quoted,  39,   223 

GoDKiN,    E.    L.,   quoted,    120,    121 

"  Gold  Mines,"  125 

Goldsmith,  95,  145,  267;  quoted, 
146;  exercises,  20,  49,  97,  99,  163, 
164,    166,   184,   216 

Good  Use  (Chapters  22—25),  mean- 
ing, 15;  rules  of,  16;  in  intro- 
ductions, 121;  in  words,  254;  ex- 
plained, 286—292;  idioms,  transla- 
tion En^jlish,  293—299;  barbarisms, 
improprieties,  300—^08;  solecisms, 
309-321;  punctuation,  325.  See 
Grammar 

Grammar,  15;  in  sentences^  171, 
173,  174,  200,  206-208,  222,  286, 
287;  solecisms,  309;  list  of  mis- 
takes   in,    312—320 

Grant,  U.  S.,  quoted,  66 

Green,  John  Richard,  quoted  in 
exercise,  227 

Hawthorne,  25,  85,  95,  loi,  129, 
130,  131;  quoted,  11,  179,  248; 
quoted  and  discussed,  189—192, 
201-203;  exercises,  11,  34.  83, 
97,   124,    164,   184,  216,  248^  274 

Harte,  Bret,  164 


Holmes,  quoted,  273;  exercises,  273, 

„275 

Howells,  289 

•'  How  I   Furnished  My  Room,"  28 

Hugo,  Victor,  87 

Hyperbole,   266 

Idioms,  293 

if,  for  though,  320 

Illustration,  in  developing  para- 
graphs, 56;  in  exposition,  73, 
128 

Imperative^  sentences,    179 

Improprieties,    301;    list   of,    303-308 

Indention,  of  paragraphs,  36,  141 

Independent  clauses,  172,  187,  236, 
328,   329 

Infinitive,   cleft,   319 

Interrogation,   266 

Interrogative    sentences,    179;    for 
emphasis,    220 

Introduction,  118-121.  See  Begin- 
ning 

Inversion,    221 

Irony,  264,   266 

Irving,  164;  quoted,  65;  exercises, 
6z,  IIS.   164 

Italics,   221,   331 

James,  Henry,   160,   289;  quoted  in 

exercises,  49,   155 
Johnson,  Samuel,  269;  quoted,  228, 

245;  exercises,   166,  228,  245 

Keats,  quoted,   270 
Kipling,  exercises,    164 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  quoted  in 
exercises,    246 

Language,  changing,  286-289;  idio- 
matic,   293-295 

Latin,  words  from,  255;  ablative 
absolute,    295 

Lincoln,  quoted,  238,  247;  exer- 
cises,   83,    233,    247 

Literature,    6 

Localisms,   288,   300 

LocKHART  (Life  of  Scott),  quoted 
in   exercise,    184 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  95 

Logical  order,  in  paragraphs,  37-4°; 
in  exposition,  72—74;  in  argument, 
77',  in  description,  87,  88;  in 
plans,   109,   no 

Longfellow,   exercises,   30,    166 

Long  sentences,  and  short,  1 75-177*, 
and  loose,    193 

Loose    sentences,    177;    violating 
unity,    193-195 

Lord's   Prayer,   quoted,   239 

Lowell,  exercises,   275 

Macaulay,  5,  6,  44.  71.  144,  i45f 
211,    267;    quoted,     12,     57,     122, 


352 


Index 


14S.     ^77f    217,     222,    228;     exer- 
cises, 12,  13.  19.  62,  126,  166,  184, 
216,   217,   2181,  219,    228,    229      . 
Malory,     Sir    Thomas,     quoted    in 

exercises,  291  , 

Manuscript,  preparation   of,   9,    10 
Material,     for    themes,    22-26.     See 

Selection   of   material 
Meredith,  quoted,   142 
Metaphor,   265,  266,  268,   269 
Methods     of     development     of     the 

paragraph,    52-68 
Metonymy,    266 

Milton,     238;     quoted,     244;     exer- 
cises, 64,  244,  290 
Mixed   figures,    268,    269  ,, 

"  My      Enjoyment      in       Reading, 
plans  of,    106,    108,    112,    113,   131. 
^32,    143    .. 
"  My  Room,"   27 

Narrative,  in  single  paragraphs,  60; 
in  themes  of  two  paragraphs,  70. 
71,  84,  91—104;  combined  with 
description,  or  exposition,  96;  the 
plan  of  a,  109;  the  development 
of  a,  129-132,  135,  136;  point  of 
view  in,  131,  132;  fictitious  narra- 
tor of,  94.    131.    ^32 

National  Use,  287,   288 

neither.   314,    316;   neither,  nor,   210 

New  coinages,   300 

Newman,  Cardinal,  71;  quoted,  56, 
178,   246;    exercises,    246 

New  words,   to  be  learned,   255 

New  York  "  Sun,"  120 

•'  Night  Before  the  Battle  of  Has- 
tings,"   21 S 

Non-restrictive    clauses,    327 

no    one,    314 

not  only,  but  also,  210 

Nouns    for    adjectives,    294 

Number,  agreement  in,  between  an- 
tecedent and  pronoun,  206,  207; 
between   verb   and   subject,   316 

Objective  description,   85 

Objective  point  in  narrative,  92—96, 
130,   13s 

Obsolete  words,   300 

Omission  of  words,  320;  punctuation 
for,   327,   329 

one  another,   314 

Order    of    explanation,    no.     See 
Logical  order 

Order  of  impressions,  87,  88,   109 

Order  of  proof,   76,   no 

Order  of  things  in  space,  40,  87,  91, 
98,    109 

Order  of  words  in  sentences,  deter- 
mined by  grammar,  173,  174,  200; 
determined  by  paragraph  struc- 
ture, 174,  17s,  200,  201;  deter- 
mined   by    coherence,    202,    203, 


209-210;  rule  for,  209;  deter- 
mined   by    emphasis,    222-225 

Outline.     See   Plan 

Overuse,  of  and  and  but,  42,  236; 
of  participles,  236,  295;  of  cer- 
tain words,  278;  of  trite  phrases, 
279;  of  adjectives  or  adverbs, 
281;  of  one  construction,  236 

Paragraph  (Chapters  5-8,  12),  as  a 
unit  36-51;  a  unit  of  composi- 
tion, 8;  cause  and  effect  as 
method  of  development,  61,  68; 
coherence  in,  37-44;  comparison 
and  contrast  as  method  of  de- 
velopment, 57,  58;  connecting 
sentences  in,  144-146;  connecting 
words  in,  41-44;  corresponding 
to  division  of  thought,  143;  defi- 
nition as  method  of  development, 
53.  54;  details  and  particulars  as 
method  of  development,  54-56; 
development  of,  52—68;  division 
of  longer  theme,  141—156;  em- 
phasis in,  44—47;  examples  and 
illustrations,  as  method  of  devel- 
opment, 56,  57;  governing  sen- 
tence structure,  171,  174,  200—202; 
in  a  plan,  142-144;  in  conversa- 
tion, 141,  142;  indention  of, 
36,  141 ;  in  themes  of  two 
paragraphs,  69,  70,  73,  74,  76, 
77;  length  of,  142;  narrative,  60, 
61,  146—148;  proof  as  method  of 
development,  59;  relation  to 
whole  composition,  141,  144; 
topic-sentence  in,  37,  47,  52,  53; 
unity  in,  37;  various  methods  of 
development,    61,    62,   68 

Parallel  structure,  in  sentences,  44, 
201,  203.  See  Uniformity  of 
construction 

Parenthesis,   punctuation   for,   326, 
329 

Participles,  relation  to  subjects, 
207;  awkward,  236;  in  transla- 
tions,   295  ^ 

Particulars    in    development    of 
paragraph,   54 

Perfect   infinitive,    316 

Periodic    sentences,    177—179;    for 
emphasis,    220,    221 

Personification,  265,   266 

Phrases,  as  connectives,  42;  for 
nouns  or  adjectives,  95;  par- 
ticipial,  236,   295 

Plan,  for  argumentative  paragraph, 
59;  for  an  exposition  of  two  para- 
graphs, 73;  for  an  argument  of 
two  paragraphs,  76,  77;  for  a  nar- 
rative of  two  paragraphs,  96,  97; 
need  of,  105,  106;  for  longer 
themes,  105—117;  unity  governing 
selection   in,    106,    107;   coherence 


Index 


353 


governing  arrangement  of,  107- 
110;  emphasis  governing  propor- 
tion of,  110-112;  example  of  a 
good,  82,  112-114,  143;  examples 
of  various  plans,  11 5-1 17;  to  be 
followed,  133;  to  provide  for 
paragraphs,  142-144;  indicated  to 
reader,    144—146 

Plato's  "  Apologia,"  quoted  in  ex- 
ercises,   251-253 

Plurals,    313 

Point   of   view,    87,    130-133 

Pope,    quoted,    300 

Prepositions,  list  of,  294;  at  end  of 
sentence,    294;    solecisms,    319 

presently,    288 

Present   use,   287 

Pretentious    words,    279 

Prevision,    158 

"Princess,  The,"  48 

Principal   parts  of  verbs,   3^4    _ 

Principles  of  composition,  defined, 
16-19;  as  guides,  160;  necessary 
for  beauty  in  sentences,  234. 
See    Coherence,    Emphasis,    Unity 

Pronouns,  ambiguity  of,  207;  per- 
sonal, 313;  ending  in  -self,  313; 
before   verbal    nouns,    313 

Proofs,  in  development  of  para- 
graph, 59;  separated  in  argument, 
76 

Proportion,  directed  by  principle  of 
emphasis,  18;  problem  of,  70;  in 
exposition,  72;  in  argument,  77; 
in  description.  88;  in  narrative, 
93.  13s.  136;  in  a  plan,  no,  in; 
in  developing  a  theme,   134-136 

Proposition,    in   an   argument,    74— 7^ 

Provincialisms.     See    Localisms 

Purpose,  the  writer's,  determines: 
choice  of  methods  of  developing 
paragraphs,  61,  62;  use  of  four 
forms  of  prose,  70,  71,  74.  84, 
85;  the  plan,  105-107;  use  of 
principles,  161,  162;  sentence 
structure,  176,  179;  choice  of 
words,   257,  258 

Qualities    of   style,    7 

Raleigh,   Sir  Walter,   quoted  in 
exercise,    244 

Reader,  problem  of,  4,  6;  special,  6; 
average,  7;  paragraph  indention 
to  aid,  36;  sentence  structure  to 
aid,  288 

Reading,  aloud,  239;  to  enlarge  vo- 
cabulary, 256 

Repetition,  in  development  of  para- 
graph,  53;    for  emphasis,   221 

Reputable  use,   287,  288 

Restrictive   clauses,   327 

Revision,   158 


Rhetoric,  Art  of,  3-9;  defined,  4,  8; 

purpose,  9;   founded  in  good  use, 

15 
Rhythm,   238—240 
Roosevelt,  President,  95,   164 
RusKiN,   88,    loi;   quoted,    152.  240; 

exercises,   152,   153 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  quoted,  66;  ex- 
ercises,   79,    97,   99,    124,   127,    140 
Scribner's   Magazine,   quoted,   90 
Sedgwick,   H.   D.,   44,   211;   quoted. 

Selection  of  material,  governed  by 
unity,  17;  in  themes  of  two  para- 
graphs, 70 ;  in  expositions,  72 ;  in 
arguments,  75,  76;  in  descriptions, 
86,    87;    in   narratives,   92,    93;    in 

f)lanning  longer  themes,  107;  in 
ong  themes,   129 

Sentences  (Chapters  14—18),  antith- 
esis in,  267;  as  connective,  41, 
134,  144-I/16;  as  unit  of  composi- 
tion, 8;  balanced,  221;  beauty  in, 
234-253;  climax  in,  225;  coher- 
ence in,  200—219;  complex,  172; 
compound,  172;  conciseness  in, 
226,  236-238;  connectives  in,  203— 
206,  ,208,  209;  declarative,  179; 
definition  of,  171,  172;  emphasis 
in,  220—233;  find  of,  221—226;  ex- 
clamative,  179;  fragmentary,  172, 
192,  193;  good  use  applied  to,  16, 
171,  173,  174,  200,  206—208;  gram- 
mar governs  order  of,  200,  206— 
208;  imperative,  179;  kinds  of, 
172—179;  long  or  short,  175-177; 
loose,  177-179,  and  long,  193-195; 
order  of  words  in,  202,  203,  209, 
210,  222—22$;  organic  unity  of, 
171,  187—192,  195;  paragraph 
governs  structure  of,  171,  174," 
200-202;  parallel  structure  in,  201- 
203;  periodic,  177-179,  220,  221; 
related  to  paragraph,  144,  171, 
174.  200-202;  rhythm  in,  238—240; 
rules  for  coherence,  206-210; 
simple,  172;  suggestiveness  in, 
240-242;  uniformity  of  construc- 
tion in,  201-203,  210—212;  unity 
in,  187-199;  variety  in,  173,  235, 
236 

Sequence  of  tenses,  315 

Shakespeare,  255,  287,  288; 
quoted,  238;  exercises  on,  63, 
64,  68,  79,  100,  164,  166,  167, 
233,   290 

shall  and  will,   317 

Short  sentences,  or  long,  175-177; 
for  emphasis,  220 

should  or  would,    317 

Simile,    265,    266,    268,    269 

Simple  sentence,    172 

"  Slang,"   73.  286,  300 


354 


Index 


Solecisms,  173,  309;  list  of,  312-321 

SouTHEY,  exercises,   164 

Specific  words,  256 

Spoken  language,  differs  from  writ- 
ten, 7 

Sterling,  John,  290 

Stevenson,  32,  87,  88,  loi,  131; 
quoted,  26,  103,  146—148;  exer- 
cises,   102-104,    146-148,   274,   277 

Style,  qualities  of,  7;  defined,  8; 
beauty,  234-242;  false  and  true 
aims   in,    242,    280 

Subject,  problem  of,  4,  5;  fitted  to 
space,  31,  32 

Subject  and  predicate,  172 

Subjective   description,   85 

Subjects  for  themes,  discussed,  22— 
26;  lists  of,  20,  26,  30,  34,  47,  49, 
63,  64,  68,  78,  79,  83,  97,  98,  99, 
100,  IIS,  136,  137,  156,  162,  163, 
164,    16s,    166,    167 

Subjunctive  mood,  316 

Subordination  of  ideas  in  sentences, 
172,    188-192 

Suggestiveness  in  words,  240,  264- 
277;    in    sentences,    240-242 

Summary,  at  the  end,  121;  paragraph 

«  as,    133 

Superfluous    words,    281 

Suspense,  94,   129.   135 

Swift,  58;  quoted  in  exercises,  149, 
ISO 

Synecdoche,    266 

Synonyms,  256 

Tarbell,   Ida,   quoted,    38 

Technical    words,    300 

Temple,  Sir  William,  quoted  in 
exercise,    244 

Tennyson,  288;  quoted,  262;  exer- 
cises,   20,    30,    49,    140,    166,    262 

Tenses,    315 

Thackeray,  95;  quoted,  60,  247; 
exercises,  124,  140,  247 

that,   who,    which,    314 

Themes  (Chapters  1-13),  defined,  8, 
9;  directions  for  writing,  9;  ma- 
terial for,  22-30;  principles  ap- 
plied to,  16-18;  prevision  and 
revision  of,  157,  158;  by  students, 
quoted,  27,  28,  48,  124,  125,  154, 
262,  283;  subjects  for.  See 
Subjects 

Title,    32,    33 

Topic-sentence,  defined,  37,  47,  52, 
53;  methods  of  developing,  53—60; 
implied,  53,  61;  in  narrative  para- 
graphs,   60,    61,    148 

Transition,  between  paragraphs,  133. 
See   Connectives 

Translation  English,  295 

Trite  phrases,   279 

Tropes,  265 


Uniformity  of  construction,  aids  co- 
herence of  paragraph,  44,  201, 
202;  aids  coherence  of  sentence, 
203,  210—212,  217,  218,  220;  vio- 
lated by  change  of  subject,  44, 
211;    rule    for,    210 

Unity,  principle  of,  defined,  17;  in 
single  paragraph,  37;^  in  exposi- 
tion, 72;  in  description,  87;  in 
narrative,  92;  in  the  plan,  107; 
in  beginning  and  end,  118;  in  de- 
velopment of  theme,  129-133;  of 
expression,  129-133;  in  sentences, 
187-199 


Variety  in   sentence  structure,    173, 

17s;    necessary   for   beauty,    235 
Virgil,  quoted  in  exercises,  297—299 
Voltaire,    58 
Vulgarisms,  300,  314 


Washington,  83 

Webster,  Daniel,  quoted  in  exer- 
cise, 276 

"  What  Our  School  Needs,"  plans 
of,    108,    119 

who,  which,   that,   314 

who,  whom.   314 

Whole  compositions,  principles  ap- 
plied to,  16—18;  paragraphs  as, 
37;  paragraphs,  divisions  of,  36, 
144.     See  Themes 

will  and  shall,  317 

Williams,  Jesse  Lynch,  quoted,  90 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  95 

Wordiness,  226,  237,  279-282 

Words  (Chapters  19-21.  See  also 
Chapters  22-25),  abbreviated,  300; 
Anglo-Saxon,  255;  barbarisms, 
300;  choice  of,  258,  271,  272,  282, 
283;  derivation  of,  255.  287;  dis- 
crimination of,  256;  foreign^  300; 
figures  of  speech,  265-269;  gen- 
eral and  specific,  256—258;  good 
use  in,  286—288;  images  of,  257; 
improprieties,  301,  303-308;  local, 
288,  300;  new,  255,  300;  number 
of,  25s;  obsolescent,  290;  obsolete, 
300;  overused,  278;  pretentious, 
279;  slang,  289^  300;  specific,  256- 
258;  suggestiveness  in,  269-271; 
superfluous,  260,  282;  synonyms, 
256,  260;  technical,  300;  tropes, 
265;  vulgar,   300 

Wordsworth,   quoted,   266,    271 

would  and  should,   317 

Writer,   the  problem  of,   4,   5 


Xenophon,    "  Anabasis,"   quoted   in 
exercises,   250,   296 


M577056 


L31631 

T3Z 

1910 

Educ. 

Lib. 


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